Michigan is wholly voluntary, having its origin and its development in the readiness of both lower and higher schools to co-operate for their mutual advantage. (2.) Minnesota High-Schools. Seven years ago (1881) the State of Minnesota attempted to effect a similar union by legislation. A "High-School Board" was constituted for the encouragement of liberal education in the State. Through this board the law provides for the rendering of pecuniary aid to such schools as shall have "regular and orderly courses of study, embracing all the branches prescribed as requisite for admission to the collegiate department of the university." The New York plan is similar to this, the distribution of funds being made and certificates given by the "Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York."* (3.) Commissioned High-Schools. Following the experiment in these States, and especially in Michigan, as the first attempt, the idea has been adopted in Indiana, Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and perhaps other States-not always, unfortunately, with careful guards thrown about its application, like those in Michigan and Minnesota. Since 1881 graduates of approved high-schools in California have been admitted to the State University; and since 1878 graduates of the Hopkins Grammar-School, New Haven, to Yale. Dartmouth has for ten years had a like arrangement with local schools, and recently Rutgers. Bibliography. "Annals of the Boston Primary School Committee," by J. Wightman, 1860 (comprises the history of primary education for a large part of New * For a general discussion of this subject, see "Relations of High-Schools and Colleges," in "Proceedings of National Educational Association," Chicago, 1887, p. 282. England, and is of general interest); "Courses and Methods for Primary, Grammar, and Ungraded Schools," J. T. Prince, 1886; "District Schools," J. O. Taylor, 1834; “Graduating System for Country Schools," A. L. Wade, 1881; "The Kindergarten in America," Steiger, 1872; "The Kindergarten in the United States," by Kate B. Ford, "Michigan School Report," 1877, p. 287; "Lectures in the Training-School for Kindergartners," Miss E. P. Peabody, 1886; "Reports of the St. Louis City Schools for 1875-'76, 1876-'77, and 1878-'79," by Dr. W. T. Harris, on the Philosophy of the Kindergarten" and the "History of the System in St. Louis"; "The High-School and the College," C. W. Tufts, "New England Journal of Education," February 12, 1885; "Relation of Secondary Education to the American University Problem," A. F. West, "Proceedings of the National Educational Association," 1885; "The Function of the High-School as a Factor in Public Education," H. H. Morgan, "New England Journal of Education," vol. xii, No. 24; "Report on Preparation for College," "Proceedings of the National Council of Education," 1884, p. 36; “City School Systems in the United States," by J. D. Philbrick, 1885. CHAPTER XX. EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. THERE are three well-defined periods in the educational history of the South: 1. The colonial period; 2. The antewar period; 3. The period of reorganization. During the first of these, if the systems of Massachusetts and Connecticut be excepted, parts of the South were even better supplied with the means of education than most colonies North. This means only that throughout this period and for almost the entire country the only established agencies were private and parochial schools, and these, in the early days of Georgia, South Carolina, and Virginia, were superior. The reorganization came a quarter of a century later in most of these States than in the North and West. 1. The Ante-war Period. In the second period began the educational divergence between the two sections. The South perfected existing institutions, adapting them to the peculiar social and governmental conditions. The North founded new ones-the public free schools. The colleges and academies and denominational seminaries met the common want of the financially independent planter, and, for anything more, sons were sent to the North or abroad. It was estimated in 1855, by eminent authority,* that for many years before the war the South paid annually to the North for books and education not less than five million dollars. And yet in most States something had been done looking toward common schools; but it was done half-heartedly, as will appear, and in the midst of the most unfavorable conditions. To those familiar with these conditions and the prevalent social and ethical standards, the common sentiment concerning public schools can not seem strange. 66 Georgia as early as 1792 had taken steps for a high-grade school in each county, and in 1821 appropriated two hundred and fifty thousand dollars to their maintenance. Two years later a like fund was set apart for the use of the elementary or poor schools." Beginnings were made in Virginia for a literary fund in 1810, and a decade later in Kentucky. Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee made appropriations of land. Seven of the States-Alabama, Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, and South Carolinaapplied their shares of the surplus revenue in whole or in part to education. This alone aggregated three and a half millions, and under favorable conditions would have been a powerful factor in their school administration. Maryland as early as 1825 had a State School Superintendent and others later. Georgia, North Carolina, Louisiana, Missis sippi, Tennessee, Alabama, and Kentucky each spent annu * J. B. De Bow, "Review," vol. xviii, p. 664. ally on common schools for many years from one fourth to three fourths of a million dollars. The result of the effort was the establishment of systems in Baltimore, St. Louis, and Louisville, with beginnings in New Orleans and Charleston. Speaking broadly, all attempts at public education, as is seen now, were stamped with failure from the beginningwith failure, if by success is meant making the schools free and equally open to all without class implications.* First, the general better class sentiment of these States was, if not antagonistic, at least indifferent to a free education. In 1859 it was asserted that the New England system was not adapted to Louisiana and the South. A Southern review said: "After ten years' trial it has been proved that the laws can not be carried out, that more than half the families in Louisiana will not accept of the mental food the State offers to her children. Some parishes will not receive any of it."+ It was said of Texas about the same time that, while taxed sixteen thousand dollars for public schools, there was not one in the State. Yet nearly every planter had a school in his own house. That the feeling sometimes appeared in stronger antagonism is shown by another extract from the same authority (1858). After quoting those who, while admitting that the system had failed in rural districts, yet asserted its success in New Orleans, the writer said, "If the tree be judged by its fruits, it is poisonous instead of salutary to republican institions in our great cities.” Further, under the most favorable circumstances, the laws that were enacted were, almost without exception, permissive only. In a report made to the Delaware Convention in 1843 was a section on education showing how fundamentally the citizenship of that State rested upon optional taxation. It said: "The report of the Massachusetts Board of Education declares that the cardinal principle which lies at the founda * Of course, no consideration is had of the negro in this period. tion of their educational system is that all the children of the State shall be educated by the State. Let it be distinctly remarked that this is not the principle of our school system, but that our system is founded upon the position that the people must educate their own children; and that all the State should do or can do for any useful effect is to organize them into communities, so as they may act together for that purpose and help and encourage them to act efficiently. The school of every district is thus in the power of its voters. They can have as good schools as they wish, or an inferior school, or no school."* Most States, however, provided some means of schooling the children of those who were unable to educate their own. In South Carolina the schools were for all, preference being given to the poor. In Virginia these were paid for by the State at the rate of four to eight cents per day. In general this was the "pauper system" that had worked such disaster in one or two Northern States, and those who could do otherwise would have nothing of it. The tendency to large plantations also and small towns negatived the free-school impulse, while "the existence of slavery," says Ramage, "prevented the growth of a large middle class, out of whose ranks the patrons of the common school are so strongly recruited." 2. The Period of Reorganization. With the close of the war came new conditions, new institutions, and new standards of public policy and administration. Taxable property had depreciated sixty per cent at a stroke, and four million illiterates were added to the school population. The educational problem set for solution, it has been said, was how to educate three times the number of children with one third the money. School funds had been wasted in the conflict to the amount of millions. Banks were gone, investments of every sort swept away, and per * Delaware has no State School Superintendent, and but little system in State schools. |