he wrote to his father the following letter. It is the earliest specimen of his correspondence which has been preserved.

If you or my protectors do not give me the means of supporting myself more honorably in the house where I am, let me return home immediately. I am tired of exhibiting indigence and of seeing the smiles of insolent scholars who are only superior to me by reason of their fortune; for there is not one capable of feeling the noble sentiments with which I am animated. What! sir, your son is to be the laughing-stock of some popinjays, who, proud of the pleasures they give themselves, make fun of the privations I endure! No, my father, no! Should fortune absolutely refuse the amelioration of my lot, remove me from Brienne, and if necessary give me a mechanical profession. By these offers judge of my despair. This letter, believe me, is not dictated by any vain desire to indulge in expensive amusements; I am not at all fond of them. I simply experience the want of showing that I have the means of procuring them like the rest of my comrades.

Having passed his examinations in 1785, Napoleon joined a French artillery regiment and learned in practice all the duties of an officer. He took a keen interest in the reform movements which were beginning to agitate France, adopted republican sentiments, and for a time, at least, became a Jacobin. But the following letter to his elder brother, Joseph, written from Paris in 1792, indicates that he placed little confidence in the Revolutionary leaders.

The men at the head of the Revolution are a poor lot. It must be acknowledged, when one views matters closely, that the people do not deserve all the trouble taken about them. You are acquainted with the history of Ajaccio;1 that of Paris is the same. Perhaps here men are meaner, worse, and greater liars. Every one pursues his own interest and searches to gain his own ends by dint of all sorts of crimes; people intrigue as basely as ever. All this destroys ambition. One pities those who have the misfortune to play a part in public affairs. . . . To live tranquilly and enjoy the affections of one's family is what 1 Napoleon's native town in Corsica.

one should do when one has five thousand francs a year and is between twenty-five and forty years of age; that is to say, when the imagination has calmed down and no longer torments one. I embrace you, and recommend you to be moderate in all things in all things, mind, if you desire to live happily.

From his viewpoint in Paris, Napoleon witnessed some of the great days" of the Revolution, including the humiliation of Louis XVI at Versailles and the September massacres. His sound common sense revolted against such scenes. 'Why don't they sweep off four or five hundred of that rabble with cannon?" he exclaimed. "The rest would then run away fast enough." Two years later he proved the truth of his words. On October 5, 1795, a mob advanced to the attack of the Tuileries, where the Convention was sitting. The young artillery officer, now become a general, met them with a whiff of grapeshot" and crushed once for all the royalist reaction. Napoleon described the scene in a brief letter to Joseph.

At last all is over. My first idea is to think of you and to send you news concerning myself.

The royalists, formed into sections, became daily more insolent. The Convention ordered that the Lepelletier section should be disarmed, and it resisted the troops. Menou, who commanded, is said to have played the traitor, and was at once dismissed. The Convention appointed Barras to command the army, and the Committees appointed me second in command. We posted the troops; the enemy marched to attack us at the Tuileries; we killed a great number of them, losing on our side thirty men killed and sixty wounded. We have disarmed the sections, and all is quiet. As usual, I was not wounded.

155. The Rise of Napoleon 1

Napoleon's success in quelling the Parisian mob gained for him the favor of Barras, the most prominent member of the Directory, and an appointment to the command of the French army of Italy. To his soldiers Napoleon addressed from Nice in 1796 the thrilling proclamation which follows.

1 Bingham, Letters and Despatches, vol. i, pp. 64, 208.

Soldiers, you were naked, ill-fed: the government owed you much and had nothing to give you. Your patience, and the courage you have exhibited in the midst of these rocks, are admirable; but they procure you no glory; no brilliancy is reflected on you. I desire to lead you into the most fertile plains in the world. Rich provinces and great cities will be in your power; you will find there, honor, glory, and wealth. Soldiers of Italy, will you be wanting in courage and constancy?

Napoleon's campaigns in Italy revealed his surpassing generalship. He soon liberated Lombardy from the yoke of Austria and compelled that country to agree to the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), thus bringing the war to an end. England, however, still remained an enemy, and Napoleon determined to strike at her through her Oriental possessions. The conquest of Egypt, he believed, would be a deadly blow to English commerce and might become a stepping-stone to the conquest of India. "This little Europe," Napoleon remarked to his secretary, "does not supply enough glory for me. I must seek it in the East: all great fame comes from that quarter." The Directory was easily persuaded to intrust him with a strong expedition, which landed in Egypt in 1798. Before the soldiers embarked at Toulon, he issued the following proclamation.

Soldiers, you are one of the wings of the army of England. You have fought on mountain and plain and besieged forts; it remained for you to wage a maritime war.

The Roman legions, which you have sometimes imitated but not yet equaled, fought against Carthage both by sea and on the plains of Zama. Victory never abandoned them, because they were constantly brave, patient in the support of fatigue, well disciplined, and united.

Soldiers, Europe has its eyes upon you.

You have great destinies to fulfill, battles to fight, dangers to overcome. You will do more than you have yet accomplished for the prosperity of your country, for the happiness of mankind, and for your own glory.

Sailors, infantry, cavalry, artillery, be united, and remember that on the day of battle you will stand in need of each other....

The French rapidly overran Egypt and organized it as a colony, but they could proceed no further with their schemes of conquest.

Nelson at the battle of the Nile (1799) destroyed Napoleon's fleet, and the Turks repulsed his attack on Syria. Obliged to give up his grandiose plans for the foundation of an Eastern Empire, Napoleon began to think of returning home, where his services were badly needed. During his absence in Egypt Austria and Russia had again declared war on France, and the Directory had shown itself to be both corrupt and incompetent. At this juncture of affairs Napoleon secretly quitted Egypt and made his escape to France. Within a month of his landing (1799), he had overthrown the Directory and had become the virtual ruler of the French, with the title of First Consul. This position he retained for the next five years.

156. Napoleon as Consul1

The first year of the Consulate saw the withdrawal of Russia from the coalition and the crushing of Austria by the battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden (1800). Austria now made peace, and in 1802 England also signed the Treaty of Amiens. With Europe tranquil, Napoleon at last had leisure to enter upon those far-reaching reforms in government, law, and industry which have helped to immortalize his name. An interesting sidelight on the wide range of his intellectual interests at this time is afforded by his two brief notes to the eminent mathematician and astronomer, Laplace.

I have received with gratitude, citizen, the copy of your fine work (La Mécanique céleste 2) which you have just sent me. The first six months I can dispose of shall be spent in reading it. If you have nothing better to do, come and dine with me to-morrow. My respects to Madame Laplace.

In the second note to Laplace he writes:

All that I have read of your work appears to me perfectly clear. I long to be able to devote a few weeks to finish reading it, and I much regret not being able to give it the time and attention it deserves. This affords me a new opportunity for bewailing the force of circumstances which have diverted me into another career, where I find myself so far removed from the

1 Bingham, Letters and Despatches, vol. i, pp. 272, 289–290, 291, 407; vol. ii, pp. 44-45, 49.

2 Celestial Mechanics. This famous work, which in the history of science ranks second only to Newton's Principia, was published at Paris in four volumes between 1799 and 1805.

sciences. I thank you for your dedication, which I accept with pleasure, and I desire that future generations in reading your Mécanique céleste may remember my esteem and friendship for the author.

A private soldier, having written to Napoleon reminding him of his services, his wounds, and his devotion, received this reply from the First Consul.

I have received your letter, my gallant Léon. You are the bravest grenadier in the army, now that the gallant Benezette is dead. You received one of the hundred sabers which I distributed to the army. All the soldiers admitted that you were the model of the regiment. I greatly wish to see you. The War Minister will send you an order.

When news reached France of the death of Washington, Napoleon caused the following Order of the Day to be posted.

Washington is dead. This great man fought against tyranny. He consolidated the liberty of his country. His memory will always be dear to the French people, and especially to French soldiers, who, like American soldiers, fight for liberty and equality.

Consequently, the First Consul directs that for the next ten days all the standards and pennons of the Republic shall be veiled in crape.

How Napoleon took care to throttle the press and prevent the publication of undesirable news is illustrated by the following letter to one of his officials. It was written in 1803, when England and France were again at war.

The Débats has published two articles dated from Germany. I wish to know whence these articles were derived, and who paid for alarming the nation with the echo of rumors spread by England. Order the Débats to contradict these false reports in a suitable manner. I am not more satisfied with the politics of the Mercure. I wish to know if the brothers Bertin, who have been constantly in English pay, own the Débats and the Mercure. Do not conceal the fact that this is the last time