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guage and philosophy. Necessity,"
says Bishop Butler, in his unanswerable
chapter upon that subject,
requires and supposes a necessary agent,
as freedom requires and supposes a free
agent, to be the former of the world."
Mr. Owen's favourite dogma of the in-
justice of punishment is confuted in a
single passage by the same profound
reasoner. "It is said," observes the
bishop, "that what, upon supposition
of freedom, would be just punishment,
upon supposition of necessity, becomes
manifestly unjust; as if the necessity,
which is supposed to destroy the in-
justice of murders, for instance, would
not also destroy the injustice of punish-
ing it." Another objectionable feature
in Mr. Owen's plans is the power of
dissolving the marriage state at the will
of either party, children being no bar
to the separation, as, from the second
year of their birth, they are to belong
to the community. Much might be
said to prove the ill effects of weaken-
ing domestic ties, and the licentious
and unchaste notions which this state
of things would in time give rise to.
Sir James Mackintosh, in his Disserta-
tion, in The Encyclopædia Britannica,
attributes to these causes, in a great
measure, the chief convulsions of the
Roman empire.

speaking, as much wanted now as when the scheme of gospel morality was first propounded, Mr. Owen is, perhaps, not the only one who has discovered; but few will therefore concur with him, that faith is the source of existing evil, though assenting to his favourite doctrine, that charity is the only bond by which co-operation can be effected, and that, without it, all creeds are but "as sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal." In this respect, the most orthodox Christian may go the length of Mr. Owen; for St. Paul himself has declared charity to be the grand touchstone of religious sincerity. With respect to the formation of our character for, and not by, ourselves, we shall not be expected, in a work like the present, to enter into a lengthened controversy with Mr. Owen; but the conclusion he deduces from his doctrines is too dangerous to be passed over in silence. Having stated that we are the creatures exclusively of circumstance, and not of choice, he proceeds to strip man of the power of acting or judging for himself, and acquits him, consequently, of all accountability to his Creator for his conduct or opinions. Vice, it has been justly contended, is not likely to be checked by the promulgation of an opinion so flattering to its inclinations as this, whether true or false; nor will such a doctrine stand more chance of adoption because, as is believed to be the case, Mr. Owen has diffused it in the hope of inspiring charitable judgments and feelings between man and man. The operation of circumstances has been more than once hinted at in the sacred writings as a reasonable as well as a revealed ground for our obedience to the precept, "judge not, lest ye be judged;" but neither Scripture nor philosophy has confounded the temptation to an action with the action itself. The wretch, whom famine tempts to steal a piece of bread, cannot plead necessity as his excuse; for necessity, to mean anything at all, means an inevitable consequence; and, undoubtedly, theft is not the inevitable consequence of hunger it may be the probable one under certain circumstances, but to call that inevitable, which wants the consent of an agent to carry it into effect, in every case, and is possible to be avoided in any one, is a solecism both in lan- | nanimity, are qualities of which the

With respect to the moral and intellectual improvement which might be effected by surrounding youth with favourable circumstances, no doubt can be entertained; but how far continuous and uniform results in character would be produced, or whether such an uniformity would be, on the whole, beneficial to mankind, is yet, perhaps, to be determined. If all things were in such plenty that there could be no want, or if men were so benevolent as to provide for the wants of others as much as for their own, there would, says Hume, in neither case, be any justice, because there would be no need for it. "But it is evident," observes Sir James Mackintosh," that the same reasoning is applicable to every good affection, and every right action. None of them could exist, if there were no scope for their exercise. If there could be no offences, there could be no placability. If there were no crime, there could be no mercy. Temperance, prudence, patience, mag

value depends on the evils by which they are respectively exercised."

Having thus taken a review of Mr. Owen's principles, a word or two remains to be said upon his plans, which have been treated with a silence and contempt by the literary world in general, which neither they nor their propounder deserve. Not one encyclopædia, in its elaborate articles upon society and political economy, contains even the mention of his name; and his views have been either wholly overlooked, or summarily dismissed, by the principal reviewers. The infant schools, established upon the plan of that at New Lanark, have been found to succeed; and as far as the experiment of his new order of society has been tried at Lanark, it seems to promise favourable results as a whole. In adopting his plans, there is no necessity for adopting his principles; for his community at New Lanark, in their first address to him, declared their persuasion of the truths of Christianity, and their determination to abide by them; and Mr. Owen, in his answer, observed, "Knowing the importance of religious liberty and perfect freedom of opinion, I have ever been anxious to secure them to each of you equally." His benevolent and disinterested intentions have been proved by the sacrifice of almost all his fortune; by the devotion of his time to the promulgation of his views; and by the courage and firmness with which he has advocated them in the face of ridicule, prejudice, arrogance, and contempt. A man who proposes a plan of modelling society in such a manner as to produce universal happiness, deserves, at least, attention; and, having persisted in his scheme for twenty years, with something like experience in his favour, is not to be dismissed as a visionary or enthusiast, until his theories have been shown to be utterly impracticable by something

more convincing than sarcasm and abuse.

Another cause, however, besides the general hostility to Mr. Owen's plans, is said to exist in the isolation of Mr. Owen himself from those who entertain congenial sentiments. He has been described as "the most intelligent and benevolent of dictators, but no COoperator." He is said to consider no one qualified to co-operate with, but all under, him; and that, until the public are determined to study the principles and carry them into practice, independently of any name or of any individual, their great benefits to humanity must still be deferred. "There is a peculiarity in his personal character," observes the author of Hampden in the Nineteenth Century, (one of the warmest admirers of Mr. Owen's theory) "which may have prevented him from deriving assistance from those who, in consequence of long continued attention to the subject, were best qualified to aid him. Successful above all his contemporaries in detecting the real cause of distress, and in developing the true principles of society, and seldom finding congeniality of opinion, he concluded that no one was competent to the subject but himself, as no one besides had had the same experience in practice. The consequence of this impression was an apparent egotism, notwithstanding his sincere disavowal of the desire of fame, in the advocacy of a system, which professes to lose sight of the individual in the species, and to recognise no one apart and distinct from the rest. It has also led to a disregard of the most intelligent in society, and driven from him those who, from their acquirements and merited reputation, might, after studying the subject, have been greatly instrumental in spreading a knowledge of truth far and wide."

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JOSEPH LANCASTER.

JOSEPH LANCASTER was born, in 1771, of Quaker parents, to which sect he himself belongs. He made himself known by delivering lectures, in various parts of England, on education, according to a peculiar plan of his own, as he stated; but of which Dr. Bell, of Madras, may, with more propriety, be called the founder. It consisted in teaching by mutual or monitorial instruction; so that the boys, in fact, became each other's instructors. Sand-writing, and syllabic spelling, are two principal ingredients of the system; the former of which Dr. Bell first got the idea of from a Malabar school. It has, in fact, been long in use among the oriental nations; and neither Dr. Bell, therefore, nor the subject of our memoir, can be said to have made a new discovery. Each, however, has the merit of bringing it into practice, with various improvements; though it is scarcely fair towards Dr. Bell, to call that the Lancasterian system, in which, if a claim to originality be admitted at all, Dr. Bell's is, unquestionably, the stronger. A writer in The London Encyclopædia has thus stated the question of the comparative economy of the two schools. "Dr. Bell introduced the knowledge of sand-writing and syllabic spelling, which Mr. Lancaster confessedly borrowed from him. Mr. Lancaster having first opened a large school, introduced the economical use of slates, in many cases where paper books were necessarily used at Madras. Mr. Lancaster also invented a large card, with the letters and short words printed thereon; one of which, stuck against the wall, serves the whole class to read from; whereas, Dr. Bell prefers that each child should have a small card of its own, which it may look at and con over at its pleasure. Many of Dr. Bell's schools use the large cards, many of Mr. Lancaster's the small ones; a few Bibles and Testaments are admitted to be as necessary in Mr. Lancaster's schools as in Dr. Bell's. So that, in fact, the two schools are now on a perfect equality as to expense."

Mr. Lancaster certainly has the credit of having used the most zealous and active exertions to establish a system of education, which, by whatever name it may be proper to call it, is undoubtedly one of the most brilliant of our modern discoveries, and may be now regarded as established. In his attempts to introduce it in this country, he received encouragement from the highest personages in the kingdom, with the sovereign at their head, and succeeded in founding numerous schools. The first one which he opened was in the Borough, in 1803; and, in the same year, he published the first edition of his Improvements in Education, in which he acknowledges his obligations to Dr. Bell, and regrets that he was not acquainted with the beauty of his system till somewhat advanced in his plan. "If I had known it," he says, "it would have saved me much trouble, and some retrograde movements." In the public papers, however, he took all the merit of the invention to himself, which gave rise to a controversy between his own friends and those of Dr. Bell; but the subject of our memoir had become the prominent character on the canvass, and was considered "the necessary, indeed the only instrument, through whom the new system could be carried into practice."

Upon Mr. Lancaster's embarking, however, in an extensive school establishment, at Tooting, on his own resources, he met with such little encouragement, as compelled him to give it up; and ultimately, in disgust, to quit England for America, where he has diffused a knowledge of his plan with great success. His works upon the subject, besides that above-mentioned, are A Letter to John Forster, on the best means of Educating and Employing the Poor in Ireland; Appeal to Justice in behalf of some Poor Children; Outlines of a Plan for the Education of Children; Account of his Plan for the Education of Children; and his Report on the Progress of his Plan, from the year 1793 to 1812.

DAVID RICARDO.

DAVID RICARDO, the third son of an eminent Jew stock-broker, was born in London, on the 19th of April, 1772. He received the first part of his education in Holland, and, after completing it in England, was taken into his father's counting-house. His studies at this time comprised little more than reading, writing, and arithmetic; but he subsequently made himself master of the mathematics, and obtained a partial knowledge of chemistry, geology, &c. When a boy, he was remarkable for solidity of judgment and steadiness of character, and was employed by his father in many important transactions long before he attained his twenty-first year. At this age he married a Christian lady, and became a convert from Judaism, in consequence of which he was driven from his father's house, and forced to seek his own livelihood. His industry and ability soon rendered him successful, and not only procured him a competency, but enabled him to realize a handsome fortune. It was not till he was somewhat advanced in life, that he engaged in political economy, to which his attention was first attracted by a perusal of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. His connexion with the Bank, and his knowledge of its immense transactions, led him to reflect upon the subject of the currency; to endeavour to account for the difference of value that existed be-' tween the coin of the realm and banknotes; and to ascertain from what causes the depreciation of the latter arose. Having committed his views to paper, he exhibited the manuscript to the late editor and proprietor of The Morning Chronicle, Mr. Perry, who urged him to allow its appearance in his paper. To this, after some time, he consented; and his productions were accordingly given in the shape of letters, signed R., the first of which appeared on the 6th of September, 1810. The interest they excited induced him to publish them, shortly after, in the shape of a pamphlet, On the Depreciation of the Currency, which elicited numerous replies. The

question was next taken up as one of great national importance, and by the late Mr. Horner in particular, who obtained the appointment of the famous bullion committee, the result of whose labours was the confirmation of Mr. Ricardo's doctrines. He was next induced to assist in the investigation of the affairs of the Bank of England, in which Mr. Grenfell had engaged; and the result was his masterly Exposition, with a proposal for an economical currency, on which subject he addressed a letter to Mr. Perceval, then chancellor of the exchequer, who, however, declined following his advice. His next productions were, An Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock, and his celebrated Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, which at once placed him in the first rank of writers on that subject.

He entered upon a new sphere of life, on becoming member of parliament for the borough of Portarlington, in Ireland, in 1819; and, in all financial questions, was listened to, by both sides of the house, with the deepest attention. He died, highly respected, at his seat, Gatcomb Park, Gloucestershire, on the 11th of September, 1823, leaving a widow and seven children. His loss was sensibly felt in parliament, where his original and enlightened views, and his able manner of explaining them, had created a revolution in the doctrine of political economy highly beneficial to the country. The system of Mr. Ricardo, though it has been opposed with great force by Mr. Malthus and others, has not been shaken; and a writer in The New Monthly Magazine has not, perhaps asserted too much, in saying, that " After every allowance has been made for its deficiencies in style and arrangement, The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation is the most original, profound, and truly valuable philosophical work, that has appeared since the publication of The Wealth of Nations, by the erudite Dr. Smith."

THOMAS ROBERT MALTHUS.

The doctrine of Mr. Malthus is in direct opposition to that of all preceding writers, and in particular of Dr. Adam Smith, who contends, in his Wealth of Nations, that it is impossible for the human species to multiply beyond the means of subsistence. Mr. Malthus not only denies the impossibility, but attempts to prove that this over increase has already taken place, and is the cause of that vice and misery, so prevalent in the older countries of the world. Having come to this conclusion, he proposes that a law should be made forbidding parish assistance to children, both legitimate and illegitimate; and insists upon it, as the duty of the superior classes, to withhold all increase of the comforts of the poor, lest it should encourage them to marry. The follow

THOMAS ROBERT MALTHUS, the son of Daniel Malthus, Esq., of Albury, near Guilford, was born about the year 1775, and received a liberal education, which he completed at Jesus' College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship, and proceeded to the degree of M.A., having previously entered into holy orders. The work, which laid the foundation of his fame, his Treatise on Population, &c., first appeared, anonymously, in 1798, and created no little sensation in the world, from the peculiar character of the doctrines it promulgated. Conjectures as to the author were put an end to in 1803, when a quarto edition of the work appeared, with the name of Mr. Malthus affixed, and obtained a rapid circulation, especially amongst the wealthy classes of society. "It being odious passage, in his first publicacame, indeed," says the author of the Public Characters, "the Bible of the rich, the selfish, and the sensual." Of these Mr. Malthus obtained many admirers, and even some of the learned became proselytes to his doctrines, whilst others regarded them as odious and impious. In 1807, he published a letter to S. Whitbread, Esq., on his proposed bill for the amendment of the poor-laws; and, in 1813 and 1817, some pamphlets in defence of the East India Company's establishment at Haileybury College, of which, on its institution in 1813, he had been appointed professor of history and political economy. 1814, appeared his Observations on the Effects of the Corn Laws, and of a Rise or Fall in the Price of Corn, on the Agriculture and general Wealth of the Country. It was succeeded, in the following year, by An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent, and the Principles by which it is regulated; Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of restricting the Importation of Foreign Corn; and Additions to the Essay on the Principles of Population. These works all attempt to support the favourite theory of Mr. Malthus, that poverty and misery are caused by over population.

In

tion, gave such offence, that he thought proper to expunge it in the subsequent editions of his work:-"A man, who is born into a world already possessed, if he cannot get subsistence from his parents, and if society do not want his labour, has no claim of right to the smallest portion of food, and, in fact, has no business to be where he is. At Nature's mighty feast there is no vacant cover ready for him. She tells him to be gone, and will quickly execute her own orders."

His principles, however, remain unaltered, and have been advocated by many influential writers, particularly some in The Quarterly Review; though, in Number Seventy-five of that publication, some remarks will be found on the subject, which are decidedly antiMalthusian. Mr. Malthus is there considered as one who has but "contrived to revive and elevate into popularity a theory originally broached by a philosophical infidel of the seventeenth century." And again, "we are enabled to pronounce, upon evidence which cannot be disputed, that whatever increase may have taken place in the population of Ireland within the last two hundred years, the produce raised in that country for subsisting them has increased in a

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