3. Claudius had commanded all Jews to depart from Rome.'-Bible. 'He would have all men to bend to his plans.'-ANGUS. They doomed him to die. The Cape then belonged to Holland.'—G.

COMPLEMENTS: CLAUSES.

Clauses serve respectively as subjects, attributes, adverbials, and objects. But in certain instances clauses very closely connected with the abstract verb, or with vaguely predicative verbs and participles, have been classed with complements. A few examples are appended. One apparent example is here omitted. It should be regarded as a name. [Exod. iii. 14.]

6

'I am as I am.'—WYATT. 'All things are as is their use.'—TURBERVILE. How [much is] a score of ewes [worth] now? [That is] thereafter as they be.' Accommodated-That is when a man is, as they say, accommodated.'-SHAKESPEARE. 'I am persuaded that none of these things are hidden.'-Bible. 'His solicitor had informed him that his plea could be of no use.'-H. WALPOLE. 'You are persuaded that Lord Amherst will defend Kew Bridge.'-S. SMITH. Things are not what they seem.'—LONGFELLOW. The purse was where I left it.'-MORELL, E. Gram. I convinced him that he was mistaken. The opinion of the judge was that the prisoner was guilty.'-MASON, E. Gram. I was informed the house was sold.'ADAMS, E. Gram.

47. ADVERBIALS.

The term Adverbial-employed in its widest sense— is here applied not only to words called adverbs, but also to all phrases and clauses serving to define or to modify the meanings of verbs and attributive words. The Attribute enlarges or modifies the meanings of substantive words; the Adverbial, those of predicative and attributive words.

To show more clearly the nature of adverbials, it may for a moment be supposed that they are not employed. Without their aid an assertion may still be made complete. 'Clear daylight appeared.' Again, an assertion is made complete when the abstract verb and a complement take the place of the intransitive verb appeared. Clear daylight was appearing.' To express completely a transitive act, an object must follow the verb. 'The wind dispersed the clouds.' In each of these examples one act alone is asserted. Two facts may of course be asserted in two sentences. Clear daylight appeared. The appearance of daylight was sudden.' A single

word may well take the place of the latter sentence. daylight appeared suddenly.'

'Clear

Again, two acts-one transitive-are asserted in the following two sentences:- The wind dispersed the clouds. Clear daylight appeared.' These assertions might well be connected by and, but each would still remain independent. One would not be made subordinate to the other. But the two acts asserted are viewed as intimately connected with each other. Forms of expression should, as far as possible, represent truly our notions and correspond with our observations of facts. This law is obeyed when an adverbial-phrase takes the place of the former sentence. 'The wind dispersing the clouds, clear daylight suddenly appeared.' Or instead of a phrase a clause may be employed. As the wind dispersed the clouds, clear daylight appeared.' The three adjuncts thus employed are formally various; one is a word, another is a phrase, and the last is a clause. But all are alike in their common use. They serve to define and modify an assertion made by a predicative verb, and are therefore called adverbials. As regards their more important uses, adverbials are divided into three classes.

(a) The first includes those defining assertions of acts or transitions, viewed with respect to place and time, quantity and quality, sequence, manner, means, degree, and limitation.

'At a late hour they arrived.' Their arrival is asserted with a reference to time; but the two notions of arrival and lateness are not always or inevitably related to each other.

(b) The second class includes adverbials expressing relative notions of comparison, proportion, condition, and causality.

Two-thirds must be less than the whole. The adverbial is one of comparison, and the notion asserted is inevitably relative.

(c) The third class includes adverbials of affirmation and negation.

There remain still unnoticed many adverbials that, in an extensive treatise, might be classified, but here may be collectively called various. Their different uses are best shown in the sentences to which they respectively belong, and here can be indicated only by means of nouns having cognate meanings. We have, for example, adverbials denoting union ('together"); division ('piecemeal'); exclusion (waiving that'); substitution (instead of that '); asking ('how,' 'where,' 'when,' why,'); answering (to that'); guessing (say, twenty'); haste ('yare,' 'briskly '); delay('at leisure'); will (leuere,' readily '); choice (as you like'); opposition (on the contrary'); defiance (for all that'); aid ('for your sake'); politeness (by your leave'); modesty (for my own part'); moderation (for the most part'); finality (after all'); eternity (evermore'). Hardly any class is

more numerous than that of the adverbials denoting capacity and introduced by as. These are distinct from others ('as to,'' as regards,' etc.), also introduced by as, and serving as phrases denoting references, retrospective or prospective (as touching,'' as concerning,'' anent that').

The adverbials most frequently occurring in a writer's style serve partly to indicate his culture, and distinct sections of literature have severally their own classes of adverbs. As there are topics and writings fairly called trivial, so there are cognate trivial adverbials. We have, for example, adverbials of childish imitation ('rub-a-dub,'' tweedle-dee'); of hesitation ('willy-nilly' will ye, nill ye); of confusion ('pell-mell,' 'helter-skelter'); of contempt ('I care not a straw').

=

No meanings can be really stronger than those of the adverbs employed in yes and no. But adverbials of asseveration are redundant in some sections of literature. The obsolete phrase by my halidom is a comparatively inoffensive example of numerous old expressions. Of these many, by familiar misuse, lost long ago their first meanings, and disguising (as well as they might) their original forms, passed over into the class of words and elliptical phrases called interjections.

Adverbs should help to define or modify predicates; but here and there a writer inserts a word or phrase to show that his meaning is intentionally left vague, or is expressed with much caution, such as is implied in saying as it were,' or 'so to speak.' With a similar intention like (without a complement) is used in some dialects; for example, in answering a query:- How far may it be to the "Swan"?' 'Why, its gainly four mile like.'

Among the examples already given, some might misrepresent adverbials as expletive or unimportant parts of sentences. On the contrary, right uses of these adjuncts have great importance. In grammar it is required only that the predicate shall be complete, not that it shall be true. But in historical and didactic literature it is also required that, as far as possible, the predicate shall be made true; and this must often be done by means of such expressions of limitation, qualification, and condition as are classified with adverbials. Habitual right uses of these adjuncts are sure indications of culture. It is an advantage of no mean importance to be able to grasp in one grammatical expression a general truth, with the necessary limitations, qualifications, and conditions which its practical application requires, and the habitual omission of which characterises the shallow thinker.'MARSH, Lectures on the English Language.

ADVERBIALS: WORDS.

Observations.-1. As regards their forms, adverbials, excepting a few, are cognate with other parts of speech. In the words yes (a contracted sentence) and no (a contracted phrase) the adverbial elements are ye (= ge, E.I.) and ne (reduced to n). The words yes and no, it is said, should not be called adverbs. They must, then, be treated as elliptical expressions including adverbs. [See §§ 12, 20, 37.]

(a) In prose numerous adverbs are words having distinct forms ending in ly. There are a few adjectives ending in

ly, to which the adverbial suffix should not be added. [See 12.]

(b) In prose some adverbial uses of adjective forms are established, and others not commonly accepted as correct are found in the literature of the last three centuries. It is not everywhere easy to draw a line of distinction between adjuncts called Adverbials and others called Complements.

(c) More frequently adverbials employed in verse are made formally like adjectives.

2. (a) As regards their uses, words called adverbs belong mostly to the first of the three classes of adverbials.

(b) But there are a few forms (sometimes denoting inference) that refer to notions of causality more frequently and more clearly expressed in clauses.

(c) For our ordinary uses of negative forms Modern English has a rule that was not known in old times. Two negatives, when relating to one verb, are not allowed. They are, however, often so employed when one has the form of a prefix, and they are of course rightly used when a twofold denial or prohibition is implied. In verse they serve sometimes (but rarely) instead of the ordinary form of affirmation.

(d) It is in many places clear that some words called adverbs serve to modify the meanings of nouns. Many adverbs have uses so numerous that here they must be collectively called various.

(e) Here and there a form usually employed as an adverb (then, for example) serves as an adjective, and here and there an adverb (now, for example) serves as a noun. There are examples of adverbs employed as verbs.

3. As regards their places, adverbials- especially the words called adverbs-are versatile, and an adverb may sometimes be moved without an alteration of the meaning intended. The chief rule of position is this-where it is not used to modify the general tone of a whole sentence, the adverb should be placed near the word or the phrase intended to be modified.

(a) Placed at the beginning, an adverb may give definition or emphasis, or a modified tone, to the whole of a sentence. Thus the adverb even, placed as an initial word, may show that an assertion is remarkable chiefly with respect to the subject, while the same word even, placed in another position, may give force to the verb itself. Examples of such adverbs as even, only, and accordingly, rightly employed in several places,

will be found more useful than our rules for placing adverbs. Many examples are given in the sequel.

(b) The adverb may precede an adjective, a verb, a complement, an adverb, an adverbial-phrase, or an object; but the adverb often follows the object. It is here implied that the adverb may be placed between an auxiliary verb and its complementary infinitive or participle. The adverb immediately preceding a predicative verb serves often to give emphasis to an assertion.

(c) The adverb may follow an intransitive verb, or one of the verbal forms falsely classified as belonging to a socalled Infinitive Mood. In numerous instances the adverb follows the object of a transitive verb.

Examples.-1. (a) pâs word sind sceortlîce gesæde [These words are shortly said].'-KING ELFRED. 'Hyt ys no3t clerlych [clearly] yknowe.'— JOHN OF TREVISA. 'This false knyght was slayn . . . . hastily.'-CHAUCER. Prey hym that he wyll trewly [=fairly] belassch hym.'-Paston Letters. 'Let us hartely thank him.'-SIR T. MORE. 'He answered them very wisely.'-ASCHAM. Thus arose political societies among men naturally equal.'—HOOKER. 'Some books are to be read only in parts.'-BACON. Merrily, merrily shall I live now.'--SHAKESPEARE.

(b) A folk ferr [= far off ] and first [= formerly] vncuth.'-Cursor Mundi. [Each of these forms serves as a and as x.] 'Hire her is fayr ynoh [Her hair is fair enough].'-Old Song. [Each of these forms serves as a and as x.] Hold fast the form of sound words.'-Bible. [fast serves as a and as x.] Scarce can they tread the glowing ground. . . . The snow covers the hills. How wide and deep it lies!'-SHAFTESBURY. [Scarce serves often as a and as X = scarcely; wide serves as a and as x; deep as a and as x.] To buy cheap and sell dear is their rule.' [cheap has at various times served as s, as a, and as x; dear as s, as a, and as x.] This poor child looks very cold.' 'She answered me very coldly.-G. [Here the distinct form has a distinct use. [See § 12.]

(c) 'Sleep lay flat on the ground.'-SACKVILLE. 'She speaks small, like a woman. All [= Quite] foredone [: tired out]. .. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!'-SHAKESPEARE. Fast [Close] by the tree of life.'-MILTON. The hearse that bore thee slow away.'COWPER. The meteor flag of England Shall yet terrific burn.'-CAMPBELL. [In poetry adjective forms are in many places more expressive than adverbs ending in ly.]

6

=

partly]

I

2. (a) Wat [Partly] vor honger, wat [=partly] vor wo, men deyde.' -ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. 'pys manere ys somdel [somewhat ychaunged.'-JOHN OF TREVISA. If thou be right riche.'-CHAUCER. had lever [rather] he were fayr beryed.'-Paston Letters. Many poesies are yet extant.-W. HARRISON. 'Prosperity doth best discover vice. First [correct], metals are more durable; secondly, they are more solid.'BACON. Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further.'-Bible. 'I thence invoke thy aid.'-MILTON. 'It breaks through the clouds and then shines.'STILLINGFLEET. 'I have seldom answered.'-DRYDEN. 'I have almost forgot that.'-STEELE. 'Affairs take a still worse turn.'-HUME. Alighting, he advanced.'-SMOLLETT. When will she turn, and whither?.

On