3. The chief uses of co-ordinative conjunctions have been noticed. [§ 14.] A few special observations are here appended.

(a) But-in this respect like for and nor-is often placed next to a full stop and at the beginning of a principal

sentence.

(b) Or sometimes connects two names of one thing. Where or connects words of different meanings, either may precede the first. Where the two words are nouns, an article may be repeated.

(c) In M.E. for [= because] is in some places subordinative, just as for alone, and several phrases including for are subordinative in E.II. In other places for is co-ordinative, and comes next to a full stop (a).

In E.I. ealswâ (also) is a conjunctive adverb. In M.E. also sometimes serves instead of and, and translates the German auch (=E.II. ek), but not the German also (= consequently).

In some grammars several adverbial expressions are classified with conjunctions strictly so called. These are specimens:—besides, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

4. (a) The following conjunctions employed in pairs are called correlatives :-both

or (in verse); neither verse). These are co-ordinative.

and; either

nor; nor

or; or

nor (in

(b) Contrasted adverbs have here and there subordinative uses, in other respects like those of the conjunctions called correlatives. In many places where correlative particles are employed, one introduces a subordinate sentence or clause, the other a principal sentence. In other places each introduces a subordinate sentence or clause.

Examples. 1.-(a) Mercy and truth preserve the king, and his throne is upholden by mercy. The lips of the righteous feed many; but fools die for want of wisdom.'-Bible. [Co-ordinate sentences like these are numerous in the Book of Proverbs.]

(b) Every day will I bless thee; and I will praise thy name for ever and ever.'-Bible. This world seems a desert, when we see in it only mountains, rivers, and towns; but when we know that here and there we have friends who, though distant and silent, are caring for us, this world is for us like a home in the midst of a garden.'--G.

(c) 'Many talk of friendship; few understand its essential conditions.' 'For many readers the "Odyssey" is a romance; Horace found in it a series of moral lessons.'-G. Read, not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, nor to find talk and discourse; but [read] to weigh and consider.'-BACON.

2. (a) I looked into the book, and saw its merit.'-JOHNSON. All his excellences, like those of Nature herself, are thrown out together;

and, instead of interfering with, support and recommend each other.'JEFFREY.

(b) Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance. The Lord hath sworn, and will not repent. . . . Thy brother was dead, and is alive again; was lost, and is found. Bible. Before that time my greenhouse will not be ready, and it is the only pleasant room belonging to us. I line it with mats, and spread the floor with mats, and there you shall sit with a bed of mignonette at your side.'-CowPER.

(c) 'He has been penitent; he has confessed his fault; and now [he] shall be forgiven.'-G. 'A man may be rich by chance; but no one can be good, or rise, without effort.'-ANGUS.

3. (a) For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall all be made alive. But every man in his own order [shall be quickened].'-Bible. You see those several people [as described by Plutarch], in their different laws, and policies, and forms of government; in their warriors, and senators, and demagogues. Nor are the ornaments of poetry, and the illustrations of similitudes, forgotten by him.'--DRYDEN.

(b) 'In the sentence "We know him," the last word is the object, or word directly governed.' The form "him" must be either an object, or a word governed by a preposition.' 'Achilles must either subdue his anger, or must see the Greek army defeated.' 'Providence may either avert the evil, or turn it to our advantage.' 'Take that which you prefer—the book or the picture.'-G.

(c) 'So willesfol [wilful] he was, and al for [because] in the ober bataile him vel [befell] so vair cas [such fair luck].'-ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. Our first duty is to elect leaders, for [= because] without order no good thing can be done.'-G. As ye are partakers of the sufferings, so shall ye be also of the consolation. For we would not, brethren, have you ignorant of our trouble which came to us in Asia.'-Bible.

4. (a) pe poure [poor] ba [both] and riche comen þer toforen [before] him.'-Legend of St. Katherine. I am a debtor, both to the Greeks and to the Barbarians. Either make the tree good, and his fruit good; or

else make the tree corrupt, and his fruit corrupt.'-Bible. neither the letter nor the spirit of the law.'-ANGUS.

You regard

(b) 'He not only cautioned you, but also repeated the caution.'-G. Though he slay me [xc], yet will I trust in him [p]. . As far as the east is

་

from the west [xc], so far hath he removed our transgressions from us [p].' -Bible. 'As the tree falls [xc], so it lies [p].'—G. He is so feeble [p] as to be unable to walk [xc]-ANGUS. I cannot say whether he will come [oc], or not [oc, contracted].'-G. • Whether it be I [xc] or they [xc],

so ye believed.'-Bible.

51. INTERJECTIONS, ETC.

The places of the forms more or less strictly called interjections-each consisting of a vowel, or of an isolated word-are partly prescribed by usage; but in other respects these forms are not affected by any rules of syntax.

Observations.-1. (a) Besides the forms strictly called interjections, others may be isolated so as to serve as interjections.

A noun or a pronoun, representing a vocative case in Latin, is often placed with an interjection; but in many places the noun is employed alone, or with an adjective.

(b) Where an interjection apparently governs a pronoun, it is sometimes understood that a preposition has been omitted, or that the sequence of the two words is prescribed by usage, as in 'Ah me!'

2. (a) In many elliptical sentences their exclamatory tones are denoted, partly by initial interjections, and partly by means of punctuation. Where their verbs are imperative, short and elliptical sentences are sometimes called 'interjections.'

(b) In complete sentences, where all the parts have their usual order, grief, surprise, irony, indignation, or invocation may be denoted by a final note of exclamation, which thus serves instead of an initial interjection.

(c) By the same means, an exclamatory tone may be given to a complete sentence in which the order of the words is interrogative. It is thus indicated that no answer is expected. Generally speaking, the uses of interjections are to a large extent superseded by means of punctuation.

3. The sources of numerous interjections' (so called) are adverbial. The expletive expressions here referred to belong especially to our dramatic literature, and in conversation are mostly obsolete. They consisted at first of adverbialphrases employed with a notion of strengthening forms of assertion and denial. These phrases, by means of common abuse, lost their first meanings, while, to disguise their irreverence, their original forms were purposely contracted, or were otherwise greatly altered. Thus they passed over into a class of almost meaningless words sometimes called ' interjections.' [§ 15.]

Examples.-1. (a) Eâ lâ [-Ah, or Alas], þû mîn sunu.'-ÆLFRIC. Hayt [Gee], stot [horse]!'- CHAUCER. Oho! we have escaped.

of the month was it?

My youngest [daughter] has a very pretty manner of telling fortunes upon the cards. Fudge!'-GOLDSMITH. Pshaw, beauty! we don't mind that. I am the man. "homo sum" [Terence], hem! What day The first of April. Umph!'-COLMAN. He roundly asserts that you have not the slightest invention. . . . I am diverted; ha, ha, ha! Not the least invention! ha, ha, ha!'-SHERIDAN. 'Cheerly, cheerly, my hearts! yare [= briskly], yare!'-SHAKESPEARE. Eh! how! what! Captain, did you write the letter then?'-SHERIDAN. 'Heyday, freedom! freedom! . Fury, Fury! there, Tyrant, there! hark, hark!'-SHAKESPEARE, Tempest, Act iv. Sc. i. [Fury' and ' Tyrant' are here names of hounds.] 'O Friend! I know not which way I must look for comfort. . . . O Cuckoo! . . . . O blessed bird! . . . O blithe BB

Long

New-comer!' -WORDSWORTH. 'I have done nothing but in care of thee— of thee, my dear one! . . Give us kind keepers, heavens ! '—SHAKESPEARE. Ollapod! that sounds like an ancient name.'-COLMAN. favoured England! be not thou misled.'-WORDSWORTH. (b) 'Wo me [

to] the day!

to me] bi-tyde [happen]!'--LANGLAND. 'Oh, woe [be Ah me!'-SHAKESPEARE. "O dear me!'-G.

2. (a) O for a dirge! . Oh, what a wreck!'. WORDSWORTH. 'Still the same burning sun! no cloud in heaven! . .. O for the plover's pleasant cry, to tell of water near! O for the camel-driver's song!'SOUTHEY.Lullaby [= Go to sleep], my wanton Will!'-GASCOIGNE. Avaunt, Sir Doctor Deuyas !'-SKELTON. Woe worth [be] the day [ to the day]!'-SCOTT. Avaunt!-SHAKESPEARE. On, to Iona!'-WORDSWORTH. On! Stanley, on !'-SCOTT. 'Adieu!' [= To God I commend you]. ... Good-b'ye!' [= God be with you.]

(b) They parted-ne'er to meet again!'-COLERIDGE.

Hope gives his feeble limbs a sudden strength; he hurries on!'-SOUTHEY. 'Common sense is so prosaic !'--G. H. LEWES. [The tone here indicated by the note of exclamation is ironical.]

(c) How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle! ... How doth the city sit solitary that was full of people! how is she become as a widow!'-Bible. Ah, why [should we] deceive ourselves!'-WORDS

WORTH.

6

3. Ye have i-nough, pardy [=par Dieu]!'-CHAUCER. [This example may indicate the way in which many adverbials of asseveration by frequent misuse assumed interjectional forms, or were purposely disguised. So marry!' (in SHAKESPEARE) disguises the Seinte Marie!' of an earlier time, and by'rlakin!' a contracted diminutive (also found in SHAKESPEARE), serves instead of the phrase by our Lady!' The forms' gad!' and 'egad!' with too many others like them, disguised a Name often profanely used, while in "sdeath!' as in several like forms, nothing was left of that Name save the s' of its possessive case. See The Pardoneres Tale in CHAUCER, and the Persones Tale, edited by FURNIVALL.]

52. SYNTAX: RULES.

It has been shown, in the observations and examples already given, that our sentences have numerous varieties of structure of which little can be told in the form of concise rules. Among the rules of syntax one is usually expressed in terms like these:-The verb agrees with the subject in number and person.' The rule itself is readily understood, and where it is not formally known is mostly obeyed. But, as we have noticed, there are many apparent exceptions, and these are not as well understood as the rule. Here, then, as in other instances, the chief use of the rule is to direct attention to certain formal anomalies; in other words, the references appended will be found more useful than the rule itself, which-left alone-might, in many cases, leave room for doubt, or might lead to error. It should be remembered that rules and facts rarely or never agree together exactly.

It has been noticed in several preceding sections [44-51] that numbers of paragraphs containing examples correspond with numbers prefixed to paragraphs consisting of observations. The rules that follow are arranged in an order corresponding with that of the sections above referred to, and at the end of each rule references are given to the observations and examples on which the rule is founded.

It will be noticed that the same figures and Italic letters that refer to observations refer also to corresponding examples.

53. SUBJECTS.

In every sentence, as in every clause, the subject must be made clear.

§ 44, Words, 2, 4, 6; Phrases, 3; Clauses, 3.

As far as their forms allow, pronouns show their agreement in gender, number, and case with the nouns to which they relate.

§ 44, Words, 4, 5.