words. Without its sound many lines in CHAUCER'S verse would be deprived of harmony. The final e was elided before a vowel and before a word beginning with h.

Traces of vowel-change in the comparison of adjectives were long retained in Old English. An innovation was made by shortening, in comparison, the vowel of the positive. Thus depe (deep), used instead of deôp, had for the comparative and the superlative depper and dĕppest. Many words were treated in the same manner by LANGLAND and other writers of the fourteenth century. The inflexions er and est were freely added to both English and Roman words, and no distinctions were made respecting euphony, or the length of words, or their terminations. The analytical forms more' and 'most' were often used as substitutes for inflexions, but without any observance of such rules as have been laid down by modern grammarians. Double comparatives and superlatives were, in Old English, freely employed in such forms as 'most clennest' (for 'cleanest '), ' more unhappyer,' 'most unkindest.' Such forms were not condemned in SHAKESPEARE's time. One of the class is retained in the Bible of the seventeenth century (Acтs xxvi. 5), where we read of 'the most straitest sect' of Pharisees.

In MODERN ENGLISH hardly any vestiges of the two declensions in E.I. remain. There may, however, be a trace of the weak declension in our phrase 'the olden time,' and a trace of vowel-change in comparison remains in 'old, elder, eldest. With these slight exceptions the adjective has now no inflexion save the er and est for comparison. While these suffixes are retained the analytical mode of indicating comparison, by using the adverbs'more' and 'most,' is also freely employed.

Rules intended to restrict the use of er and est are given in many English Grammars, but are not generally obeyed. Some of the more concise of these rules allow the use of suffixes with words of the following classes:

(1) Monosyllables; (2) Dissyllables ending with le or y, preceded by a Consonant.

Another rule would forbid the use of an inflexion after any one of the endings ain, al, ate, ed, ent, id, ing, ous; also after compound words made with ful, less, and some. This extensive rule is not generally accepted. Inflexions are often added to words ending in ed, el, er, and ant, and such words as 'handsomest,' 'pleasantest, solidest,' are found in good authors.

The law that prohibits the use of double comparison is often broken, but in many cases the error is logical and not formal. Inflexions or adverbs of comparison are used with words that are incapable of comparison. Ex.: the loneliest place,' 'the most unmeasured abuse,'' a most interminable discourse,' 'perfectest joy,' and 'extremest pain.' To make clear the error implied in such phrases the word 'infinite' may be named. It is incapable of comparison, and its true meaning should prohibit its frequent use as an adjective in the positive degree. For all ordinary purposes, the weaker word indefinite' might serve as a substitute for 'infinite.'

ADJECTIVES.—M.E.

Adjectives used to denote quantity and quality have three degrees of comparison-the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

The Comparative and the Superlative are formed by the inflexions er and est.

When an adjective ends in e the inflexions are reduced to r and st. Ex.: 'wide, wider, widest.'

A final y is changed to i before er and est. heavier, heaviest.'

Ex.: 'heavy,

Inflexions are added to words of one syllable, and to dissyllables ending like 'able' or 'heavy,' or having the accent on the second syllable.

The words more and most are commonly used for the comparative and the superlative of adjectives containing two or more syllables. Ex.:

Rules for distinct uses of 'er' and 'est,' and their substitutes'more' and 'most,' are neither old nor well observed. They have been mostly dictated by a care for euphony. MILTON uses sólidest,' and longer words ending in 'est. Such words as 'pleasanter' and 'handsomest' are common enough.

Many adjectives are incapable of comparison. Ex. 'square.

Double superlatives seem useless, but they are often found in the works of good English writers. Ex.: chiefest,

'extremest.'

To express degrees of diminution the words 'less' and 'least' are employed. Ex.: less severe,' 'least useful.'

To add strength to the Comparative, 'far' and 'by far are used, and the Superlative is aided by the phrase ' of all.' Ex.: the greatest of all wonders.'

The Latin comparative adjectives 'junior,' 'senior,' etc., are not followed by 'than.'

6

The following adjectives have irregular forms of comparison. Some words ending in most' have arisen from confusion of the adverb 'most' with the old double superlative m-est, of which one variation = m-ost.

6

oldest (eldest)

upmost (uppermost) utmost (outermost) utmost (uttermost)

Many' serves as an adjective and as a pronoun. There is no etymological ground for calling 'more' the comparative of many;' but more and most are used with reference to number as well as to quantity.

*20. VERBS.-E.I., E.II.

That part of a Verb that remains when inflexions are taken away is called the Stem.

Inflexions of Verbs are changes of form, serving to denote changes of Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.

Mood means manner or mode.

The Infinitive

The Indicative

The Imperative

The Subjunctive)

makes no assertion. Ex.: 'to write.' declares. Ex.: 'he writes.'

mood of a verb commands. Ex.: 'come!'

may express both doubt and futurity. Ex.: if he come to-morrow.'

Tense means time.

Two tenses-Present and Past-are denoted by inflexions.

In E.I. the form of the Present is often used for the Future. Ex.: Ic fare to minum feder’ 'I go to my father;' but it may mean, I will

go to my father.'

=

When no auxiliary (or helping) verb is used a tense is called Simple. The verbs have' and 'shall' are sometimes called 'auxiliaries,' because they give aid in the formation of tenses.

Ex.: Future: I shall find.'

Perfect: 'I have found.'

These tenses are called Compound tenses.

Number. A verb is used in the Singular when one person or thing is the subject of which we speak, but in the Flural when we speak of more than one. Ex.: he speaks;' 'they speak.'

Persons. In each number there are three persons.

1. I speak

2. Thou speakest

3. He speaks

The Infinitive Mood has no distinctions of Number and Person. The forms in this Mood belong historically to verbs, and are therefore called ' verbal;' but they tell nothing, and therefore cannot serve as verbs to give union to the parts of a sentence.

The Conjugation of a Verb is a plan showing the several forms of one Verb, when used with reference to variations of Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. When no helping verb is used the conjugation is Simple; when helping verbs (such as 'have' and 'shall') are used, the conjugation is Compound.

There are two Conjugations formed without using any auxiliary verb. I. The Old Conjugation, otherwise called 'Strong.'

II. The New Conjugation, otherwise called 'Weak.'

Old-Present: ic finde I find.

=

I found.

The Old Conjugation makes the Past by a change of the vowel.
The New Conjugation makes the Past by adding de.

There is another distinction. To form a Perfect tense we use have' followed by a form called the 'Perfect Participle.

The Perfect Participle with 'had' forms the tense called Pluperfect. Ex.: ic hafde begunnen' = I had begun.

Begunnen, a Perfect Participle of the Old Conjugation, ends in en. Hæled, a Perfect Participle of the New Conjugation, ends in d.

The Old Conjugation in E.I. is, with respect to the changes made in vowels, divided into eight classes of verbs. Seven are noticed here. The eighth has hardly any representative in Modern English.

The seven classes in E.I. are in M.E. still represented more or less by

verbs of the classes to which 'begin,' 'bear,' 'bid,' 'take,' 'drive,' 'freeze,' and 'blow' belong; but the vowels, in the modern forms, do not always correspond with those of the old verbs. Vowels are more changeable than consonants.

For the purpose of committing to memory the forms of modern strong verbs, the classification here given has no great value; but it will be found useful by all who would study the history of the English Language.

In the following table, the more characteristic changes of vowels in E.I. are given, but several variations that cannot be concisely defined are omitted. In the classes numbered 4th and 7th the Past has, in E.I., no vowel-change to distinguish the Plural from the Singular; but in the other classes the Plural in the Past has its distinct vowels.

Here the vowel-change remains in M.E.; but it does not serve to make distinct the Plural of the Past.

The distinct forms of the Perfect Participle, as used to denote two meanings of the verb, are modern.

The diphthong sound of long i (as 'eye') in 'drive' is modern. In the E.I. form, drîfe, the sound of î

=

ee in 'feet.'

It seems probable that in E.I. the âw in this verb and in others of the 7th class had a sound like that of ow in tower.'

E.I. and E.II. Verbs of the Old Conjugation, here arranged in seven