est rate of interest, which must be at least 2 per cent, for the fulltime funds or any part thereof are on deposit. In all school districts containing less than two banks the board of education may enter into contract with one or more banks that are conveniently located and offer the highest rate of interest, which shall not be less than 2 per cent.

School boards may be considered as administering the schools for the people with the purpose of making every cent contributed by the taxpayers yield a profit. For that reason they should secure interest on daily balances in bank, no matter how small. Most school boards in cities between 10,000 and 25,000 population have on an average at least $10,000 on deposit. At 3 per cent, this would mean an income of $300. Small as this amount may seem, every school district is in need of something that this $300 would buy or help buy. Has the school a library? Three hundred dollars a year would purchase several hundred books. Are there pictures in every classroom? Three hundred dollars a year would purchase at least 30 pictures. Does the school own a stereopticon? Three hundred dollars would purchase a stereopticon, with enough left over to purchase $150 or $200 worth of slides.

GIFTS.

Very few schools receive any funds from gifts and endowments. Of 1,351 superintendents reporting, only 137 indicate that any funds are available from such sources. The amounts donated range from $25 to $400,000. The largest gift made any small city was that by the United States Government for the use and benefit of the free public schools of the school district of Fort Smith, Ark. The armý post at that place was donated by an act of Congress May 13, 1884.1 The city has already derived $400,000 for the use of schools from the sale of a part of the post. It is estimated that the remainder will sell for $300,000, making a total of $700,000.

Gifts from private sources have not been so large, but in several instances the amount has been as much as $100,000.

Several years ago the Bureau of Municipal Research, New York City, made an inquiry among city superintendents to determine whether gifts would be acceptable, and for what purposes. The general opinion expressed by 142 superintendents replying was that excellent use could be made of gifts, but that these funds should be used for the maintenance of departments not possible from the revenues obtained through the ordinary channels.

1 Ch. 43, vol. 23, U. S. Stat. L.

THE SUPERINTENDENT.

RELATION TO SCHOOL BOARD.

The relation of a school board to its superintendent does not differ materially from the relation that a board of bank directors sustains to the cashier or the president of a bank, or that a board of directors of any private corporation sustains to the superintendent it employs. The stockholders in a private corporation elect a board of directors to look after their interests in the conduct of the enterprise. These directors know but little about the technical details of the business they are empowered to administer. Few, if any, could do the work of one of the clerks or mechanics, much less supervise it; so they employ a superintendent to do this and hold him responsible for results. If he can not conduct the business so as to declare dividends, he must show why he can not.

The people elect school-board members to serve their interests, but the average school-board member, like the average member of a board of directors of a private corporation, knows nothing of the technical aspect of the work; yet it sometimes happens that school boards or individual members of the board attempt to do the things they are paying a superintendent to do.

In the business world many cases of failure are due largely to the fact that the board of managers attempts to dictate in regard to matters of which it is entirely ignorant. Corporations have failed because the board of directors made its superintendent a figurehead. In brief, no board of directors, whether of a public or a private corporation, should attempt to do the work it is paying an expert to do.

POWERS AND DUTIES.

Just what the duties of a superintendent shall be has been discussed from the time the first city superintendent was elected. At first he was considered a mere teacher and clerk. This idea still prevails in some cities, but his powers and responsibilities have been, and are being, much enlarged, though State laws regarding the powers and duties of city school superintendents are usually meager and define his duties in a general way. The following is a summary of the powers and duties as prescribed by the general laws of some States that define the powers and duties of the city school superintendent:

POWERS AND DUTIES OF TOWN AND CITY SUPERINTENDENTS AS PRESCRIBED BY LAW.

California. The superintendent is required to hold teachers' institute if 70 or more teachers are employed; issue work certificates; keep account of expenses of teachers' institute; report to State superintendent of public instruction; he shall be responsible for care of textbooks.

Idaho. The superintendent shall be the executive officer of the school board. Indiana.-The superintendent shall visit each year the teachers under his charge, grade each in accordance with the rules and schedule of the State superintendent of public instruction, and deliver to each teacher his or her success grade not later than July 1 of each year. In cities of the first class he shall have power to appoint and discharge principals, supervisors, assistants, and teachers unless four board members disapprove. He is required to attend all board meetings, and may speak but not vote. He is to report on books and apparatus needed.

Kansas.-In cities of the first and second class the superintendent shall have charge and control of the public schools, subject to the orders of the board; he shall be a member of the examining committee.

Kentucky.-In cities of the first and second class the superintendent may nominate as many assistant superintendents as seem necessary and remove them with the approval of the board; have general supervision, subject to the control of the board, of the course of instruction, discipline, and conduct of the schools, textbooks, and studies; and all appointments, promotions, and transfers of teachers and truant officers, and introduction and changes of textbooks and apparatus shall be made only upon the recommendation of the superintendent and the approval of the board. He may suspend any teacher or truant officer, the board to take action upon same; shall appoint and promote teachers upon merit, make reports to the board, and be responsible to the board for the condition of the "instruction and discipline of the schools."

Massachusetts.-The superintendent shall have the care and supervision of the public schools, and shall be executive officer of the board; he shall assist in keeping records and in making such reports as are required by law, and recommend teachers, textbooks, and courses of study to the committee.

New Jersey. The superintendent shall have a seat in the board and the right to speak on all educational matters, but shall not have the right to vote; shall have general supervision over the schools and report their condition to the board; may appoint and remove clerks in his office; may, with the approval of the president of the board, suspend any assistant superintendent, principal, or teacher and report such suspension to the board for action.

North Dakota.-The superintendent may be required to act as principal or teach; shall, subject to the authority of the board, supervise the administration of the course of study, visit schools, examine classes, and have general supervision of the professional work; shall make reports embodying recommendations relative to the employment of teachers and janitors, adoption of textbooks, changes in the course of study, enforcement of discipline, and general school matters, and perform such other duties as the board may direct.

Ohio.-Subject to the approval and confirmation of the board the superintendent may appoint all teachers, and for cause suspend any person thus appointed until the board considers such suspension.

Board may, by three-fourths vote, reemploy any teacher when the superintendent refuses to appoint. The superintendent shall visit the schools under his charge, direct and assist teachers, classify and control promotions of pupils, and perform such other duties as the board may require; must report annually or oftener; may be required to attend all board meetings; may take part in its deliberations, but shall not vote.

Oklahoma.-The superintendent shall have general supervision of the schools, subject to the rules of the board, and shall be chairman of the examining committee.

Pennsylvania.-The superintendent shall have a seat in the board and the right to speak, but no vote; he shall examine teachers for provisional and pro

fessional certificates; see that the branches prescribed by law are taught; notify the board of any request to employ properly qualified teachers; report to State superintendent; and perform such other duties as may be required by the board.

Rhode Island.-The superintendent shall have such powers and duties as the board may assign.

South Dakota.-In cities of the first and second class the superintendent shall have general supervision, subject to the rules and regulations of the board.

Vermont.—The town superintendent shall visit the schools at least once each term; note the method of instruction and government; inform himself of the progress of the pupils; give necessary advice to teachers; observe condition of buildings; make such recommendations as may seem necessary; he may dismiss incompetent teachers; and he shall submit an annual report.

Virginia. The superintendent shall keep a register of applicants for certificates; make monthly report to superintendent of public instruction; inspect the record and account books from time to time during the year; take care that all school laws and regulations are strictly enforced; require reports from clerks of school trustee; visit and inspect schools and inquire into their management; assign teachers and principals and reassign them at his discretion.

Wisconsin.-In all cities except first class the superintendent shall examine and license teachers; supervise the administration of the course of study; have general supervision of the professional work of the schools; make a written report to the board embodying such recommendations relative to the employment of teachers, adoption of textbooks, changes in course of study, etc., as the superintendent may deem necessary; and perform such other duties as the board may direct.

The powers and duties of city superintendents are usually delegated to them by the school board either expressly or tacitly. From a study of the rules and regulations of 50 of the smaller cities regarding the duties of the superintendent the following tabulation has been made, showing the different duties assigned and the number of boards requiring each:

Act as executive officer of the board, 36; have general supervision of instruction, 50; recommend teachers, 10; assign and transfer teachers, 12; recommend dismissal of teachers, 5; keep a record of teachers' work, 20; suspend employees, 12; attend board meetings, 21; make suggestions to board for improvement of schools, 25; suspend pupils, 45; supervise promotion of pupils, 35; prepare courses of study, 12; recommend textbooks, 3; hold teachers' meetings, 25; visit schools as often as possible, 45; keep informed of school conditions elsewhere, 35; make monthly or annual report to school board, 35; hear complaints of parents, 6; fill temporary vacancies, 20; supervise janitors, 20.

The following rules recently adopted by the school board at Freeport, N. Y., define rather definitely the powers and duties of the superintendent and indicate the general tendency to place more power in the hands of the city superintendent:

1. The superintendent shall exercise a general supervision over the public schools of the district, examine into their condition and progress, and see that all the rules prescribed for their government are faithfully observed. To this end he shall visit each school as often as practicable. He shall make such department or supplemental rules for the management and conduct of the schools as he may deem proper.

2. He shall inform himself regarding the condition of instruction and discipline in schools in other places, the progress of education at large, and, from time to time, suggest appropriate means for the improvement of the public schools in this district.

3. He shall report in writing at the end of every term, or whenever required by the board of education, giving a detailed statement of the condition and prospects of the schools and recommending such measures for their improvement as he may deem advisable. Such reports shall give the list of schools and for each school the number of pupils belonging and the number of pupils per teacher.

4. He shall arrange courses of study for the schools, subject to the approval of the board of education.

5. He shall supervise the monthly pay rolls of the teachers, as returned by the principals of the several schools, certify the same, and furnish the chairman of the finance committee, the president of the board of education, and the clerk of the board of education the full salary account for the month, showing all absences and giving causes of the same.

6. He shall select all textbooks, apparatus, and educational supplies to be used in the public schools, subject to the approval of the board of education. If any report is to be presented to the board of education for the introduction of a new textbook or publication or any revised or amended edition of one already in use, such report, with the reasons for the action proposed, shall be presented to the board of education.

7. No change of textbooks used in the schools shall take place except at the opening of a new school year.

8. Whenever in his opinion it is advisable to build a new school or to make material additions or alterations in an old school, he shall report to the board of education in connection with each recommendation the facts upon which he bases his opinion as to the advisability of building such new school or making such additions or alterations.

9. All recommendations for appointment or reappointment of all regular teachers, special teachers, substitute teachers, supervisors, and principals shall be made by the superintendent to the board of education. No teacher, special teacher, substitute teacher, supervisor, or principal will be appointed or reappointed who is not recommended by the superintendent, excepting by the unanimous vote of the board of education.

10. He shall, as far as practicable, either observe the actual teachng of an applicant or have a personal interview before nominating the applicant for a position.

11. He shall follow out the plan of rating teachers adopted by the board of education, and shall in December of each year orally give each teacher his or her rating, when requested by the teacher to do so.

12. He shall superintend the organization of schools and the classification of pupils, fix the time and prescribe the mode of all examinations, make promotions whenever the interests of the pupils demand it, and may transfer pupils from one school to another, subject to the approval of the board of education.

13. No change shall be made from the methods of promotion and grading which prevail at any given time without first being agreed upon by the board of education.

14. The superintendent may suspend any pupil when in his judgment it seems best to do so. If it becomes necessary to suspend a pupil for the second time in any given school year, the pupil shall appear before the board of education at its next regular meeting following the suspension, when the conditions of his