next to impossible for him to accumulate treasures. The Persian army was never remarkable for numbers or discipline. In 1822, the king was able to muster 35,000 men to take the field against the Turks. But they were ill supplied with ammunition, and the arsenal, when the gunners were prepared to march, had not more than twenty-five pounds of powder for each piece. Previously to 1822, a great portion of the Persian army had been raised for the purpose of defending the frontiers against the Russians. English officers were invited by the government and joined the troops; but when hostilities were declared against the Turks by Persia, the Englishmen refused to fight against them as they were a friendly nation. Upon this, these officers were all dismissed, and only a few serjeants remained to manoeuvre the horse artillery. The military force of Persia is now maintained on its ancient footing; they amount to 16,000 infantry and cavalry, and are chiefly scattered in the provincial villages, having but a small pittance.

The government is still an absolute monarchy, the word of the sovereign being the law of the country, and of his own family. The whole of the property is at the disposal of the Shah, and even the lives of his subjects. "There,' said Futeh Ali one day to the British envoy, in conversing on the difference between a king in England and in Persia; There stand Solyman Khan Kujur and several more of the first chiefs of the empire; I can cut off all their heads if I please. Can I not?' added he, addressing them. Assuredly, Kibleh Allum! (Point of the World's Adoration!) if it is your pleasure. Now that is real power,' said his majesty, turning to the envoy. But,' added he, it has no permanence: my sons, when I am gone, will fight for the crown, and it will fall into the hands of the best soldier.' And the Shah was right."

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It is almost superfluous to add, that the civil and criminal laws of Persia, as of all other Mohammedan nations, are founded on the Koran and the traditions (the Sonna). These latter are the sayings of the immediate successors of the prophet. In Persia, however, there is an additional code, the Urf, or law of custom, which is administered by a set of justices like our magistrates. The power of life and death is exercised by the king, and he seldom delegates it to others. The Koran denounces the punishment of mutilation against robbery: murder is also a capital crime; but in each case the party injured, or the survivors, may compromise matters with the culprit. In several cases the lex talionis is enforced. The last sentence of the law is executed by strangling, decapitation, or stabbing; in extreme cases, the punishments are, impalement, and such cruel modes of torture, as tearing asunder the bodies by horses starting in opposite directions. Political offences are generally visited by putting out the eyes.

From the irregularity with which the succcession to the throne is appointed, the children of the reigning monarch are always preparing for the period of his death, and in the meantime, they each wring

tributes from the people. The officers who raise those levies, generally make their fortunes by embezzling a portion, and the shrewd monarch when he has information of one of those persons accumulating this money, he waits until the coffers of the purloiners are full, and then by prosecution, imprisonment, and torture, if necessary, he forces the unfortunate man to disgorge.

The king's course on these occasions is to set up the agent or officer for sale, and Mr. Fraser tells us that, to his own personal knowledge, the reigning monarch exposed a respectable Mirza to sale, threatening him with death if he did not instantly pay a ransom. It is customary for the king and nobles to join in commercial speculations, but all successful traders below that rank are liable to be persecuted under compulsory measures, to force them to give up their wealth. A curious anecdote is related by the author, shewing the effects of this latter practice. He was informed by a friend, who resided sometime in a Persian town, "that during his residence he was alarmed by hearing, in a neighbouring house, a sort of periodical punishment going on daily. Heavy blows were given; and a person was continually crying out, Amaun! Amaun! (mercy! mercy!) I have nothing! Heaven is my witness, I have nothing! Upon inquiry, he learned that the sufferer was a merchant, reputed to be very rich, who afterwards confessed to him, that having understood the governor of the place was determined to have a share of his wealth, and expecting to be put to the torture, he had resolved to habituate himself to the endurance of pain, in order to be able to resist the threatened demands. He had brought himself to bear 1000 strokes of a stick, and, as he was able to counterfeit great exhaustion, he hoped to be able to bear as many blows as they would venture to inflict, short of death, without conceding any of his money." He also relates the following anecdote:

"A native of Fars, some time ago, made a considerable improvement in the manufacture of porcelain. His fame quickly spread until it reached the court, when the king immediately despatched an order, commanding him to repair to Teheran to make china for the shah. Now the poor fellow knew that, once there, he would have to make china not only for the shah, but for all the officers aud courtiers,-and that, too, without the hope of any payment, unless it might be an occasional good beating. Seized with consternation he collected as large a sum as possible, and presenting it by way of bribe to the minister, besought him to report that he was not the man who made the china, but that the real potter had run away. The business was managed according to his wish, and he returned pennyless to his own country, vowing never again to make a bit of china, nor to attempt an improvement of any sort as long as he lived."-pp. 312–313.

The education of the young Persian princes is peculiar. They do not leave the harem beyond the period when maternal or female attendance is necessary. They are early taught the forms of re

ligion, and particularly the gestures and gesticulation of Mohammedism. Their manners are so particularly attended to, that before seven years of age they are as perfect in their address and courteous conduct as the oldest persons. They learn, at that age, Persian and Arabic, and read the Koran; they are also instructed in the principles of their religion. When advanced in those studies, they are conducted through a course of grammar, logic, sacred law, and philosophy. The training to martial sports and athletic exercises is insisted on with great strictness, and they ride at a very early period with much grace and boldness. They marry prematurely, and have large families at twenty years of age.

The king himself has by no means a sinecure, particularly in his capacity of an ecclesiastical functionary. He is obliged to rise early, and as no male can enter his private apartment, women or eunuchs assist him in dressing. He sits in the hall of his harem for about an hour, where he holds a state levee. From this he proceeds to another apartment, where the princes of the blood and the court favourites are assembled. Here breakfast is served. It is brought in, in china, on a tray, which is covered and sealed by the steward of the household. After the repast he receives reports and confers with the ministers. Next, he holds his public levee, when all public business is transacted, and rewards and punishments awarded. Another meeting is given to another order of persons, and the fatigued monarch is compelled to retire very often to repose. He does not dine until 8 o'clock. He eats like his subjects, by sitting on the carpet, and feeding with his fingers off dishes placed before him on a richly embroidered cloth.

In speaking of the religion of the modern Persians, Mr. Fraser expresses it as his opinion, that Mohammedism is on the decline in Persia, and that all the inhabitants incline to that sect of Mohammedism which is called the Sheahs. But the subject of religion we must pass over, together with that of literature and poetry, which are subjects long rendered familiar to the English public by Sir William Jones, and lately by Sir J. Malcolm. Besides the ceremonies of domestic life, as respects births, and particularly marriages, are of a much more interesting nature than the subject which we have now passed over. The Persians are restricted to four wives, the usual number practically selected in all Mohammedan countries; but the number of concubines is unlimited. The marriages of the Persians are very peculiar, and as the best possible method of communicating a notion of its proceedings to those who never saw them, Mr. Fraser is induced to give a description of one of which he was himself an eye-witness.

"As the men (the bridegroom in this instance was a widower of advanced age) have seldom an opportunity of choosing a wife by sight, they are forced to employ some female friend to select a suitable partner; and to her they must trust for all that appertains to mental or personal

charms. The choice being made, and the gentleman satisfied, he sends a formal proposal, together with a present of sweetmeats, to the lady; both of which, it is previously understood, will be acccepted. This point being gained, he next forwards an assortment of fine clothes, shawls and handkerchiefs, bedclothes and bedding, looking-glasses, glass and china ware, bathing and cooking apparatus, henna for her hands, sugar and comfits; in short, a complete domestic outfit: all of which, it is understood, the bride's family will double and return to the future husband. A day is then fixed for fetching home the bride; when a crowd of people collect at both houses, the gentlemen at the bridegroom's, the ladies at that of the bride. The latter next proceed to complete the duties of their office, by conducting the young lady to the bath, where, after a thorough ablution, she is decked in her finest attire. As soon as it is dark the bridegroom's party proceed to bring her to her new habitation; and much discussion sometimes arises at this stage of the business, as to the number of lanterns, of fiddlers, and guests, that are to marshal the procession.

On reaching the bride's house, it is usual, before she mounts, to wrap her in a shawl provided by the husband. This, again, is often a point of dispute on the present occasion, the lady's friends objected to the indifferent quality of the shawl; those of the gentleman's party, on the other hand, swore that it was excellent. Neither would give in,-the guests were all waiting, and the affair assumed a serious aspect, when one of the visiters stept forward, and volunteered his own. It was accepted, and the cavalcade proceeded, the bride being accompanied by a great number of persons, and attended by a boy bearing a looking-glass. At intervals on the road bridges are made in the following manner for her to step over:-Gentlemen of the husband's party are called upon by name, and must place themselves on their hands and knees on the ground before her horse; and the choice generally falling on corpulent or awkward individuals, much mirth is excited. In this way the party proceeds, with fiddling, drums beating, tambourines playing, and lanterns flourishing, till they meet the bridegroom, who comes to a certain distance in advance, and this distance is the subject of another very serious discussion. As soon as he sees his lady, he throws an orange or some other fruit at her with all his force, and off he goes towards his house. This is the signal for a general scamper after him, and whosoever can catch him is entitled to his horse and clothes, or a ransom in lieu of them. When the bride arrives at the door, a man of either party jumps up behind her, and, seizing her by the waist, carries her within. Should this be done by one of the bridegroom's attendants, it is an omen of his maintaining in future a due authority over his wife; but, on the contrary, should one of her friends succeed in performing the duty,-and it is always the subject of a sharp contest,-it augurs that she will in future 'keep her own side of the house.' Another effort at ensuring the continuance of his own supremacy is often made by the gentleman, who, on reaching his domicile, after throwing the orange, takes a station over the portal, that the lady on entering may pass under his feet, and thereby become subject to him; but if discovered in this ungallant attempt, he is instantly pelted from his post.

When, at length, she has passed into the room allotted for her reception, the husband makes his appearance, and a looking-glass is imme

diately held up in such a position as to reflect the face of his bride, whom he now for the first time sees unveiled. It is a critical and anxious moment, for it is that in which the fidelity of his agents is to be proved, and the charms of his beloved to be compared with those pictured by him in his ardent imagination; while the young ladies in attendance, as well as the gossipping old ones, are eager to catch the first glimpse, and communicate to all the world their opinion of her claims to beauty. After this, the bridegroom takes a bit of sugar-candy, and, biting it in two halves, eats one himself, and presents the other to his bride: on the present occasion he had no teeth to bite with, and so he broke the sugar with his fingers; which offended the young woman so much that she cast her portion away. He then takes her stockings, throws one over his left shoulder, places the other under his right foot, and orders all the spectators to withdraw. They retire accordingly, and the happy couple are left alone."-pp. 398–401.

We have already devoted too large a space to this volume, to allow ourselves to proceed farther in the notice of the work, although we leave a very excellent account of the Afghans totally untouched. The Book is a very valuable addition to our historical literature, and derives less of its useful properties from the standard authorities on Persia, than from the author's experience, which so pervades the whole of the contents, as to secure to them all the advantages of novelty and originality.

ART. XII.-The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. By JOHN ABERCROMBIE, M.D. F.R.S.E., &c. One vol. London: Murray. 1833.

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Ir is so seldom that we are supplied with disquisitions on metaphysical and moral subjects, which are accessible to the comprehension of general readers, that we do not hesitate to seize the first opportunity which occurs of an example of so nature. It appears to us that the author of the present work has treated a very profound but still extremely interesting subject, for it is one which comes home "to the business and bosoms of men," with a degree of clearness and familiarity which place his descriptions and his reasoning on a level with the humblest understanding.

Dr. Abercrombie commences by a brief chapter on the philosophy of the moral feelings, and, after an analysis of the principles which compose them, he separates them into four divisions:First, the desires, the affections, and self-love; second, the will; third, the moral principle or conscience; fourth, the moral relation of man towards the Deity. Such are the principles or sources of influence which are most active in deciding the conduct of man as a moral and responsible being. In the chapter on the first division, the author gives a summary of the varieties of objects or