last century, and later still Clotildo Tambroni was the professor of Greek; at the moment in which we write, the professorships of law and surgery! are held by two female teachers. The students of Bologna University amount to between five and six hundred. A botanical garden, amongst other important appendages is attached to it, and also an agrarian garden, for practical instruction in agriculture, With respect to the general condition of education in the papal states, Mr. Carne tells us, that it is almost exclusively in the hands of the clergy; almost every curate or assistant gives instruction for a trifling fee, to a certain number of boys in the parish, in reading, writing, and the elements of Latin grammar. Many of the unprovided clergy give instruction either at their own houses, or by repairing to those of their more affluent pupils. Several monastic orders devote themselves to the instruction of youth, and open classes, gratis,to a certain number. In the towns this system is more accessible and useful than in the country, where it is necessarily irregular and uncertain. In the states of Lombardy, the system of education enforced by the Austrians is excellent: every village has its school, whose masters receive a fixed salary from the municipal fund. In the chief towns these seminaries are superior; and history, the science of commerce, mathematics, chemistry, and some of the modern languages, are taught. Female elementary schools are also provided, comprising writing, arithmetic, needle-work, embroidery, sacred history, epistolatory composition, &c.

Returning to Switzerland once more, Mr. Carne's remarks on the new route which he adopted, showed that he was quite satisfied with the selection. In surveying the well-known groups of Swiss, particularly under the circumstances in which he had often seen them, congregated in their rustic chapels, he is reminded of the peculiar class which has so often called forth eulogy, namely, the Swiss pastors in the wilds of their native land. As a specimen of this heroic body, he presents us with a sketch of Felix Neff, so whom, our readers will remember that in a former number of our REVIEW we rendered ample justice, under the auspices of his biographer, the Rev. W. S. Gilley.

Proceeding to the Valley of Chamouni, Mr. Carne enters into some particulars of his excursions up the mountains, and the excursions of others up Mont Blanc. It would appear from his representations, and indeed they are confirmed by most other travellers, who have visited this valley, that the fatal practice of attempting to ascend the latter mountain is still adopted by strangers. repeated instances in which lives have been sacrificed, or health permanently destroyed, appears to have no effect in checking the wild ambition, particularly of the youthful visitors from Germany, to acquire such glory as is incident to the feat of climbing Mont Blanc.

The

The general character of Swiss society, which Mr. Carne gives towards the close of his volume, is not exactly so favourable as we

were prepared to expect. In most of the towns and cantons, the only close intercourse is confined to soirees, and very seldom is a dinner party known amongst them, The Swiss dine early, so that the tea becomes a principle meal to a family, when they spend the evening at the house of another; the English stranger who attends one of these soirees for the first time, is sure to be much amused by the rapid consumption of the cakes, which are usually supplied in the most plentiful quantity. After tea, the party is separated into small card parties, and the average stake which a Swiss is willing to put in peril, never exceed the sum of three half-pence. Mr. Carne says, that commonwealths are agreeable things to admire, but for his part, he does not much like living in them ;-in fact all those evils which result from the bad passions of men, and from the lust of power, or the abuse of it, are just as ripe in republics as in monarchies; human nature is the delinquent in both cases, and when laws, or forms of government can control the bad impulses of men, and implant new principles of nature in their hearts, then shall we be justified in attending to the distinctions, between one sort of domination and another. Switzerland is further deficient in that refined taste in the arts which belongs to the Italians, and various others of their neighbours; but to compensate for this, there is, with a staunch independence, a congenial frankness of demeanour in the Swiss. The wreath, however, of eulogy which is woven by Mr. Carne thus far, is stripped of many of its leaves, when he comes to consider the love of gain which pervades every link of the Swiss population, and even is found among those, who dwelling amongst the majestic scenery of the country, ought to have a proper contempt for the dross of the earth beneath them. National vanity too, is charged upon the Swiss by Mr. Carne; but, what people is without it? and even were the case otherwise, would it be so well after all for society? After the lengthened account which we have now given of this work, it will be quite unnecessary to add any expression of our opinion as to its merits. It appears to us, to recommend itself to those who intend to visit Switzerland or Italy, by such a combination of useful qualities, as no other work on the same subject, to our knowledge, possesses.

ART. VIII.-Fanaticism. By the Author of Natural History of Enthusiasm. 1 Vol. London: Holdsworth and Ball, 1833.

We immediately recognize in this volume the same philosophic spirit, the same high sense of the Christian religion, and the same general ability and power which we before eulogised in the Natural History of Enthusiasm. It gives us pleasure to find from the author's preface, that this is not the last time that we shall have occasion to express our obligations to him for the instruction

which his compositions are so well calculated to afford us. About twelve years ago, it appears that he projected a large work to comprehend the whole of the subjects which he now, on more mature deliberation, prefers issuing in definite quantities in succession, The plan, which has been reduced to practice, is, undoubtedly, the more convenient one for each of the two parties most interested in the performance, the writer and the readers; inasmuch, as the project of the author, now that it is finally unfolded to us, exceeds in extent the amount which should form the natural contents of any single publication. By this means we shall be able to devote that attention, of which it will no doubt be worthy, to each of the important questions constituting the great links of the momentous subject, and on that account be best able to comprehend the general result of the whole.

The series, then, which is to follow, will consist of volumes on these branches: Superstition and its attendants, Credulity, Spiritual Despotism, Corruption of Morals, and Scepticism.

In

Though powerfully written, and blending all the grace of eloquence with all the strength of logic, yet we confess that this lucubration on Fanaticism falls short of producing the same impression which we derived from the admirable effusion on Enthusiasm. the composition of the latter work, the author took his station as it were on a height where, exempted from the disturbances which are encountered in the living crowd beneath him, he was able to preserve that fine tone of serene and affecting philosophy which presented him to our imagination like some superior being looking down upon our race with the benevolent aspect of compassion. But, in the present case, the emergencies of his situation obliges him to unfold the dark page of human history, to dwell on what he believes to be either the folly or the crimes of man. This duty cannot be performed without, in some measure, involving the feelings of the inquirer, who, under such circumstances, must necessarily cease to be that mere abstract superintendent of the scene, and must take an interest more or less in the proceedings. In addition to this, the subject now chosen by the author for his theme, is not so fully susceptible as the former one of being familiarly described. The process which he has to go through in this case, imposes on him the most delicate inquiries, since its locality is no other than that complicated labrynth, the human mind.

The learned writer commences with an account of the motives of the work. He devotes a second section to the exposition of the meaning of some principal words, afterwards largely employed by him, and also to a sketch of the rise of the malign emotions, and in the succeeding section arrives at the mere immediate topic, the illustration of which forms the grand object of the whole. The definition which he gives to fanaticism is, very properly, explained to the reader, as it saves the possibility of any apprehension after

wards of the meaning of the author. Fanaticism, he tells us, is enthusiasm inflamed by hatred. Setting out upon this as his text, the writer proceeds to trace the origin and cause of the malign emotions; and having done so, his next object is to exhibit the alliance of these malign emotions with the imagination. It would be impossible, in the space allowed to us, to give even a sketch of the profound and very refined chain of reasoning whereby the author brings us at last to his conclusions, each of which forms the subject of several succeeding sections. We shall be contented with stating that the elements of fanaticism are described by him to consist of three; namely, the supposition of malignity on the part of the object of religious worship-a consequent detestation of mankind at large, as the subjects of malignant power-and then a credulous conceit of the favour of Heaven shown to a few, in contempt of the rules of virtue.

In order to exhibit the modifications which these elements have undergone in the various religious systems that have occupied the attention of the world, it was necessary to go deeply into history. But then, it is obvious that, had the author adopted such a plan, numerous repetitions, not to speak of other inconveniences, would have arisen, and, consequently, another scheme of arrangement, which, in our judgment, fully answers the desired end, has been employed. The able writer has digested the materials before him into four leading divisions, each distinguished by some broad characters which may be easily traced in any age, and which it will not be possible to confound with the rest. The first of these varieties comprehends all cases wherein malignant religious sentiments turn inward upon the unhappy subject of them; this sort he calls austere, and describes under the designation of The Fanaticism of the Scourge, or of personal infliction. The second class contains that more violent species of fanaticism which looks abroad for its victims; it is called cruel, and is described by the title of, The Fanaticism of the Brand, or of immolation and cruelty. To the third class belongs the combination of intemperate religious zeal with military sentiments, or with national pride and the love of power: this is called ambitious, and is described by the title of, The Fanaticism of the Banner, or of ambition and conquest. In the fourth are comprehended all instances of the more intellectual kind, and which stand connected with opinion and dogma: to these the author gives the name of factions, and devotes a chapter to them under the designation of, The Fanaticism of the Symbol, or of creeds, dogmatism, and ecclesiastical virulence.

In the section on the first of these classes, The Fanaticism of the Scourge, the author particularly adverts to that fanaticism which is produced in consequence of malignant religious sentiments being turned inward on the unhappy subject of them. He illustrates his views by a reference to the system of monkish

austerity, the entire history of which demonstrates that virulent motives were in secret operation throughout that system. He tells that there is a rebellion of proud hearts against the calamities to which life is exposed, such as impels the disordered mind sometimes to take up its burden of woe spontaneously, rather than wait until that burden is imposed. With such as are here described, it is the practice to adopt some repugnant mode of life, as though they said, "I will live for misery-I shall run away and embrace wretchedness." That modes of feeling such as these have been acted on is too forcibly shown by history, and the author's arguments is directed to the object of making out the certainty that fanatical cruelty is derived from fanatical austerity. It was about the opening of the fourth century that the tide which ultimately brought the Christian world into a fatal swamp of superstition, first showed itself, and Basil, a man whose talents and learning might have stopped it, unfortunately lent all his powers to it: though fully capable of penetrating into men's minds, Basil was yet ignorant of the wrong tendencies of his cotemporaries, and he promoted, to an immense extent, the grand "which had already poisoned the church, and which, after a century or two, laid her prostrate, as a corrupting carcase." Basil must have been, in his time, one of the greatest props of the monastic system, and to judge from his description of it, the world would be led to infer that it offered a most delightful and seductive existence, instead of being, as our author expresses it, a fanatical and malignant one." Thus, in alluding to his own seclusion amongst the mountains of Pontus, Basil gives the following description, addressed in a letter to a friend :

error

"In Pontus, God hath shewn me a spot precisely suited to my turn of mind and habits. In truth it is the very scene which heretofore, while idly musing, I had been wont to picture to myself. It is a lofty mountain, enveloped in dense forests: on its northern front it is watered by gentle streams that sparkle to the eye as they descend. At the foot of the hill a grassy plain spreads itself out, and luxuriates in the moisture that distils perpetually from the heights. Around the level space the woods, presenting trees of every species, take an easy sweep, so as to form a natural rampart. Calypso's isle, so much praised by Homer, one might contemn in comparison with this spot in fact itself might be called an island, since it is completely encircled and shut in-on two sides, by deep and precipitous ravines; on another, by the fall of a never-failing torrent, not easily forded, and which like a wall excludes intruders. In the rear the jagged and uneven heights, with a semicircular turn, rise from the skirts of the plain, and deny access, except through a single pass, of which we are masters. My habitation occupies the ridge of a towering height, whence the landscape, with the many bends of the river, spreads itself fairly to the view, and presents, altogether, a prospect, not inferior, as I think, in gay attractions, to that which is offered by the course of the river Strymon, as seen from Amphipolis. The stream, indeed, moves so sluggishly in its bed, as