TWELFTH CENTURY. (1100-1200.) GERMAN EMPIRE. The power of the German Empire declines, Germany and Italy beginning to divide into various independent states. Sicily, however, at the end of the century is united to the empire. ITALIAN REPUBLICS. The cities of Northern Italy secure their independence in the latter half of this century, and rise to great distinction. The Norman dynasty in Sicily and Italy ceases, the power passing into the hands of the German emperors. The EASTERN EMPIRE loses and gains in extent of territory, but towards the end of the century recovers much territory in Europe. The MAHOMETAN STATES in Egypt and Asia are united under the rule of Saladin, who forms a new Mahometan power. Saladin takes Jerusalem in 1187. The kingdom of FRANCE in this century is hemmed in by the two great powers of Normandy and Aquitaine. ENGLAND is under its Norman rulers, who also reign over Normandy and Aquitaine, holding possessions in France superior to those of the French king. IRELAND is conquered in 1172 by England. DENMARK reaches its highest point of political power in this century. The northern part of the SPANISH PENINSULA is divided among the five Christian powers (PORTUGAL, LEON, CASTILE, ARAGON, NAVARRE), which are engaged in constant struggles with the Moors occupying the southern portion. PORTUGAL becomes a kingdom in 1139. JERUSALEM is taken by Saladin in 1187, and nearly all Palestine thus wrested from the Christians by the Mahometans. SICILY. See above, under GERMAN EMPIRE. Most of the powers of modern Europe have by this time come into existence. Abelard, William of Malmesbury, St. Bernard, Thomas à Becket, Peter Lombard (Master of Sentences), Eustathius, Pope Innocent III. ILLUSTRATIONS. CHIVALRY. To form a vivid idea of the mode of life in the Middle Age, we must above all enter into the spirit of chivalry. — SCHLEGEL. A FTER the fall of Rome there was very little national government in the countries of Northern Europe, the power being held by numerous chiefs, who, though sometimes united for a common object, were much oftener found in conflict with one another. In such a state of things, the rights of the humbler classes of society were at the mercy of every assailant; and it is plain that, without some check upon the lawless power of the chiefs, society must have relapsed into barbarism. Such checks were found, first, in the rivalry of the chiefs themselves, whose mutual jealousy made them restraints upon one another; secondly, in the influence of the Church, which by every motive, pure or selfish, was pledged to interpose for the protection of the weak; and lastly, in the generosity and sense of right which, however crushed under the weight of passion and selfishness, dwell naturally in the heart of man. From this last source sprang chivalry. — BULFINCH. Chivalry, which was a natural outgrowth of feudalism (see page 241), was based upon the great regard in which the military profession was universally held, and upon the traditional respect for the female sex so common among the Germanic tribes. By the eleventh century the institution of chivalry had become firmly established, and for several centuries had a remarkable effect upon the feelings and customs of all Western Europe. Throngs of knights and barons bold, In rough magnificence arrayed, MILTON. In some proud castle's high-arched wall. When in the chronicle of wasted time I see descriptions of the fairest wights, He loved the twilight that surrounds And dusk of centuries and of song. La guerre est ma patrie, Et en toute saison Combattre c'est ma vie. LONGFELLOW. The virtues and endowments that were necessary to form an accomplished knight, in the flourishing times of chivalry, were such |