PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED. LESSON 85. CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. Introductory Hints.-You have now reached a point where it becomes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into sub-classes. You have learned that nouns are the names of things; as, girl, Sarah. The name girl is held in .common by all girls, and so does not distinguish one girl from another. The name Sarah is not thus held in common; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a Common Noun; and any particular name of an individual, distinguishing it from others of its class, we call a Proper noun. The proper names, which in Rule 1, Lesson 8, you were told to begin with capital letters, are proper nouns. Such a word as wheat, music, or architecture does not distinguish one thing from others of its class; there is but one thing in the class denoted by each, each thing forms a class by itself; and so we call these words com mon nouns. In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words used instead of names. Any one speaking of himself may use I, my, etc., instead of his own name. Speaking to one, he may use you, thou, your, thy, etc., instead of that person's name. Speaking of one, he may use he, she, it, him, her, etc., instead of that one's name. These little words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of are called Personal Pronouns. By adding self to my, thy, your, him, her, and it, and selves to our, your, and them, we form what are called Compound Personal Pronouns, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the verb back upon the actor; as, Xerxes himself was the last to cross the Hellespont; The mind cannot see itself. If the speaker wishes to modify a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, by a clause, he introduces the clause by who, which, what, or that; as, I know the man who did that. These words, relating to words in an other clause, and binding the clauses together, are called Relative Pronouns, By adding ever and soever to who, which, and what, we form what are called the Compound Relative Pronouns whoever, whosoever, whichever, whatever, etc., used in a general way, and without any word expressed to which they relate. If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and asks for it, he uses who, which, or what; as, Who did that? These pronouns, used in asking questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns. Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words, pointing them out as near or remote; as, Is that a man? What is this? or telling something of their number, order, or quantity; as, None are perfect; The latter will do; Much has been done. Such words we call Adjective Pronouns. DEFINITIONS. A Noun is the name of anything. A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class. A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual. Remark.-Two classes of common nouns-collective and abstract—it might be useful to note. A Collective Noun is the name of a multitude of things taken as one whole; as, army, multitude, mob, jury. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality of a thing conceived as taken away, or abstracted, from that thing; as, beauty, softness, prudence. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. A Personal Pronoun is one that, by its form, denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses. An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is asked. *Such words as this and that may be called demonstrative pronouns; and such words as none, latter, and much, indefinite pronouns. "The difference between nouns and pronouns starts from the roots. Nouns, i. e., common substantives and adjectives, are formed from verbal roots, and denote quality and attributes. Pronominal roots denote relations, and from them are formed substantive and adjective words which indicate things by their relations. The de monstrative roots are the most important of all."-Prof. F. A. March. An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun. The simple personal pronouns are: I, thou, you, he, she, and it. The compound personal pronouns are:- Who, which, that, and what.* The compound relative pronouns are :— Whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or what. 80ever. The interrogative pronouns are: Who, which, and what. Some of the more common adjective pronouns are :— All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc.t The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an Antecedent. Direction.-Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences:Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and * As, in such sentences as this: Give such things as you can spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a conjunctive adverb-Give such things as those are which you can spare. + But for the fact that such words as brave, good, etc., in the phrases the brave, the good, etc., describe-which pronouns never do-we might call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be sup plied. The is not always used with these adjectives; as, for better or worse, in general, at random, in vain, in particular. Some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns; as, the grand, the sublime, the beautiful. his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. * Who (or whose and whom), which, and what are interrogative pronouns when the sentence or clause in which they stand asks a question directly or indirectly; they are relatives elsewhere. Direction.-Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns : 1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly. LESSON 86. CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. To the Teacher.-In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons. cther pronoun Caution. Avoid he, it, they, or any when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence. Direction. Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity :— Model. The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave him, he would die The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave his father, his father would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never abandon your (cr my) friends." 1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the book * See Lessons 60, 61, 71, and 72 for further treatment of these words, and of when, where, whoever, whatever, etc., in adjective and noun clauses. seller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home. (This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.) . 3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not, because he was so 'hort. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss. Caution. Do not use pronouns needlessly. Direction.-Write these sentences, omitting needless pronouns : 1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. Caution.—In addressing one, do not, in the same sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun. Direction.-Study the Caution, and correct these errors : 1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thy. self last, and others will love you. Caution.—The pronoun them should not be used for the adjective those, or the pronoun what for the conjunction that. Direction.-Study the Caution, and correct these errors : 1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. Caution. The relative who should always represent persons; which, brute animals and inanimate things; that, persons, animals, and things; and what, things. The antecedent of what should not be expressed. |