into great predecessor, Gustavus Adolphus, made him- | 1743, an alliance was concluded at Warsaw beself the Defender of the Protestant Faith; and tween England, Saxony, and Austria, for the destipulated that Augustus should respect the creed fence of the house of Hapsburg. The King of and privileges of his protestant subjects of Prussia instantly marched 100,000 men Saxony. This peace was concluded towards the Saxony, routed all that opposed him, and made close of the year 1706. himself master of Dresden, December 1745; whilst Augustus, with his minister, took refuge in Poland. The truce of 1746, however, restored to him the electorate; and at the same period took place the marriage of Augustus's daughter, Maria Josepha, with the Dauphin of France; a marriage from which sprung Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X., kings of France. The battle of Pultowa, and the overthrow of the power of Sweden in 1709, recalled Augustus to the throne of Poland. The pope released him from his oath of abdication. Russia, Prussia, and Denmark supported his pretensions; and Stanislaus, instead of offering resistance, fled into Turkey to join Charles. The interval between 1718, the year of Charles XII.th's death, and that of Augustus, which took place in 1733, passed away without being marked by any remarkable incidents. The unsuccessful effort of Augustus to secure the duchy of Courland for his son Maurice was almost the only attempt at active policy. The impossibility of coping with Prussia. already proved by the defeat of the Saxons and their allies, could not keep Augustus or his minister from leaguing once more against Frederic, and even planning to share that king's territories with Russia. In consequence of this, Frederic invaded Saxony in 1756, and succeeded in taking prisoner the entire Saxon army in its intrenched camp at Pirna. Augustus again fled to Poland. His reign in this latter country was as pernicious as in Saxony. The supremacy of Russia was allowed silently to establish itself in Poland under the empty government of Augustus. Pictures, porcelain, fêtes, and music, were the only cares of this prince. He expired at Dresden, in October 1763. AUK, a family of oceanic birds (Alcada), including the Auks (Alca), the Guillemots (Uria), and the Puffins (Mormon), with a few genera besides. AUGUSTUS III., son of Augustus II., Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, was born at Dresden in 1696. The death of his father in 1733 made Augustus elector of Saxony, and left him at the same time the strongest pretensions to the throne of Poland. His indolent nature shrunk, it is said, from struggling to attain this uneasy eminence; but his wife, a daughter of Austria, supplied her husband with ambition, and Augustus became a candidate. He was supported by the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg, both anxious that Poland should have for a monarch a prince of easy disposition, possessed of foreign and distant dominions. France, however, The auks are expressly adapted for their aquafavoured his father's old competitor, Stanislaus, tic home. The power of the wings as organs of whose daughter had become the wife of Louis flight is circumscribed, but they are efficient XV., and the Polish nation eagerly embraced paddles; and in one species, the Great Auk, they the occasion to elect and to rally round a native are paddles only, and not constructed for flight. prince. But a Russian army advanced to enforce The legs are extremely short, but powerful, and the pretensions of Augustus III., and after a placed so much posteriorly that in resting on the short contest the Poles yielded in 1736, though rocks the birds assume an upright attitude, the they disputed gallantly but unsuccessfully the whole of the tarsus, or leg, as well as the toes, passage of the Vistula. Under Russian auspices being applied to the surface. The toes are usually a few of the Saxon partisans in Poland, meeting only three in number, and fully webbed; when in the village of Kamien, proceeded to the coun- the hind toe exists, it is in a rudimentary conter-election of Augustus. His competitor Stanis-dition. The bill differs in form in the different laus was obliged to fly, and take refuge in Danzig, genera, but is mostly compressed laterally, and which he was compelled eventually to abandon, often grooved at the sides. The auks are natives along with his pretensions to the throne of of the seas of the northern hemisphere, the penPoland. Augustus, although crowned at Cracow guins taking their place in the southern. Fishes, in the commencement of 1734, did not become crustacea, and other marine productions, constiundisputed monarch of Poland till after the Diet of Pacification, held at Warsaw in 1736. Though oppressed by foreign troops, the Poles stipulated for the dismissal of foreigners, and for the maintenance of only 1200 Saxon guards within the kingdom. tute their food. They breed, generally, associated in large companies, on the ledges of seacliffs, in holes and caverns, or on rocky places, laying only one disproportionately large egg. The young are fed from the crop of the parents, even when able to swim amidst the waves. As examples of the family of auks we select the following: Mutual spoliation was then the sole thought of the powers of Germany. It was his first minister Sulkowski's project to conquer Bohemia The Great Auk (Alca impennis, Lin.).—In the for Saxony. Bruhl, his successor, at first aban-genus Alca the bill is deep, compressed, and doned this scheme, and leagued with Austria to cultrated; the upper mandible arched and hooked; support the succession of Maria Theresa. In a the nostrils are nearly hidden by the feathers of little time, however, he was tempted to throw the forehead; the wings are short, in one species Saxony into the opposite party, and to resume used only as oars. These birds dive with great the scheme of appropriating Bohemia, while ease, and, using their wings, pursue beneath the Frederic was to have Silesia. Soon after, in surface their aquatic prey. On shore their move ments are awkward, but they shuffle along with | Scottish isles, and the bold shores of the mainland considerable dispatch. The Great Auk. The great auk is one of the most extraordinary of our northern oceanic birds. As in the penguins, its rigidly feathered wings are used only as oars for aquatic progression, and the rapidity with which it ploughs its way is perfectly astonishing. This species is a native of the arctic circle, rarely visiting even the northern islands of Scotland. It is tolerably common on the coasts of Norway and Iceland, but still more so along the icy shores of Greenland and Spitzbergen. It breeds in the clefts and caverns of rocks above the highest tides. The female lays a single egg, as large as that of a swan, of a yellowish white tint, marked with strokes and lines of black. It feeds on crustacea and fishes, and its favourite prey is said to be the lump-fish (Cyclópterus lumpus). The great auk measures nearly three feet in length. The upper part of the plumage is deep black, with the exception of a patch of white on the forehead and around the eyes, and a slight band of white across the wings; under plumage white; bill and legs dull black. In winter the cheeks, throat, fore-part and sides of the neck, are white. The change from the winter plumage takes place in spring. of Scotland, where it rears its young on the ledges The breeding season being over, the razor-bills, with the guillemots and puffins, migrate southwards, and follow the shoals of the sardine and anchovy, even into the Mediterranean Sea; nevertheless, some few from high northern regions make the Scottish and English coasts their winter abode, revisiting their arctic breeding places in the spring. There can be no greater contrast than that which the Needles and the cliffs of the Isle of Wight present in summer and in winter. During the former season the cliffs teem with a noisy busy animated population, some going out to sea for fish, some returning to their rocky abodes; but during the autumn and winter the cliffs are deserted; the birds have departed, and not a wing is to be seen. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length. The head, neck, and upper part of the plumage are black, with a distinct white line from the beak to the eye, and a narrow bar across the wings; under parts white; bill black, with a white streak down the sides of each mandible. In winter the throat and fore parts of the neck are white. The young and adults in this stage of plumage were regarded by the older ornithologists as a distinct species, and described under the titles of Alca pica, Alca minor, &c. The Puffin, or Coulterneb (Fratercula arctica, Steph.; Mormon fratercula, Temm.).-In the puffins the bill is short, nearly as deep as long, The Razor-bill Auk, Murre, or Black-billed and much compressed, the ridge of the upper Auk (Alca torda).-In this well-known species mandible being thin and sharp. The nostrils are the wings are so far developed as to serve as slits on the border of the upper mandible, near organs of flight, but only for short distances; in the base; the sides of the bill are marked by the water they are used as oars. The razor-bill oblique ridges and furrows, and a loose puckered is common during the summer on many parts of skin surrounds the corners of the mouth. Two our coast, and those of the adjacent continent, horny appendages are placed on the eyelids, the especially in the more northern latitudes. It smaller one above the eye, the larger beneath. abounds on the shores of Labrador, where thou- The contour generally is thick and rounded. The sands are killed for the sake of the breast feathers, wings are short, and used as oars; the flight, as and vast numbers of eggs are collected. This in the razor-bill, is rapid, and sustained by respecies, with guillemots and puffins, visits the peated strokes of the pinions. cliffs of the Isle of Wight, the Isle of Man, the The general observations with regard to places VOL. II. R of habitation, rearing of the young, and migration, is in fact the home of this little bird, except which we have made respecting the razor-bill, during the season of incubation, when it resorts The Puffin. in thousands to the ledges of precipitous rocks, on which the female deposits her single egg, of a pale bluish green. The flight of this species is rapid, low, and never long sustained. The little auk is about nine inches long. The upper plumage is black, with a white bar across the wing; the throat and chest are pitch black in summer, more or less white in winter; under parts white. The Perroquet Auk (Phaleris psittacula, Temm.; Alca psittacula, Pallas).-This species, which agrees with the little auk in habits and manners, differs from it in the form of the beak, the upper mandible being swollen and bent at the tip, and the under mandible enlarged and turned upwards. It is a native of the arctic circle, and swims and dives with great facility. The female lays a single egg of large size; the colour is yellowish white spotted with brown. The length of this bird is about eleven inches. General colour above black, gradually blending into the white of the under parts. From behind each eye springs a tuft of white feathers, hanging down the sides of the neck. AULACODON. [CHELODUS.] apply to this species also. It is common in the northern seas, and multitudes annually assemble on the cliffs of the Isle of Wight, upon Priest- AULIC COUNCIL was instituted by the holm Island off the coast of Anglesey, on the Emperor Maximilian I. in 1500. Towards the Isle of Man, and most of the islands along the close of the fifteenth century, the progress of the English and Scottish coasts. On rocky coasts the Turks alarmed the princes of Germany, and led puffin selects the crevices and fissured recesses of them to feel the necessity of uniting in order to the precipice for its breeding retreat; but on low resist the common enemy. Accordingly, when shores it often usurps untenanted or even the emperor assembled the Diet of Worms in tenanted rabbit burrows; in the Fern Islands, 1495, and proposed a levy against the Turks, he where there are no rabbits, it digs a burrow for was answered, that it was first requisite to restore itself, in which to incubate, the labour being internal concord, and that the establishment of a chiefly performed by the male. (See Selby's high court of justice for the settlement of all dif'Ornithology,' vol. ii. p. 440.) The female lays ferences was the first step towards such union. a single large egg. The young are fed with The Imperial Chamber was accordingly instituted small fish. In this species the upper part of in 1496, as the high court of justice of the emthe head and of the body, and a collar round the pire. It was to consist of one judge of princely neck, are black; the cheeks are pearl grey; the rank, and of sixteen assessors, holding their office horny appendages to the eyelids leaden grey; independent of any power. This tribunal was under plumage white. The bill, which is deeply first fixed at Frankfort, then at Worms, at Nürnfurrowed, is bluish grey at the base; the middle berg, and lastly at Spires: it was modified after being rich orange red, which deepens into fine the peace of Westphalia, and the number of red at the tip; legs orange red; length 13 judges was greatly increased, one half being inches. The young have the beak small and Protestants. smooth, and of a dull yellow; and the general plumage more dusky. The Little Auk, Rotche, or Sea Dove (Morgulus melanoleucos, Ray.; Uria alle, Temm.; Alca alle, Linn.).-In this genus, which is intermediate between that of the guillemot and the auk, the bill is short, thick, and broader than high at the base; the nostrils are lateral, basal, and partly covered with feathers; wings and tail short. Not contented with thus organizing a federal judicature, the German princes demanded of Maximilian a permanent council or senate, composed partly of members of the diet, who should govern the empire during the frequent absence of the emperor. Maximilian answered, that he had no objection to appoint a Hofrath, or court council, consisting of such noble and prudent men as he should select, who should perform the duties alluded to by the diet. The Hofrath was established at Vienna in 1500. By degrees this purely Austrian institution became the Aulic Council. The little auk is a native of the arctic circle, and is recognized as a winter visitor to the coasts of Scotland. It abounds on the coasts of Greenland and Spitzbergen, and congregates in thou- The judicial functions reserved for the Aulic sands at Melville Island. When the floes of ice Council were:-1, all feudal causes; 2, all are broken up by the wind, myriads of these cases of privilege or reserve in which the emperor birds may be seen riding on the waves, busily was personally concerned; 3, all Italian causes. engaged in searching for various marine animals The merely civil and German causes were referred tossed up by the agitated waters. The ocean to the Imperial Chamber. But the Austrian princes made use of the Aulic Council in other than judicial functions. It was with them not only a court of appeal, but a political council, which was called upon to give the monarch advice in weighty matters, more especially of legislation. It thus corresponded with the French Grand Conseil, or Conseil d'Etat. The Aulic Council was finally regulated by Ferdinand III. in an edict issued in 1654, subsequent to the treaty of Westphalia and the admission of Protestants to share in all the privileges and functions of the empire. rind has some shade of yellow. They principally [ORNE.] AURE'LIA, in entomology, a name given to that state of an insect which is between the caterpillar and its final transformation, and is comAt the extinction of the German empire by the monly called a chrysalis or pupa. The term renunciation of Francis II. in 1806, and the esta-aurelia was first applied by the Romans, and blishment of the Confederation of the Rhine that of chrysalis by the Greeks, to certain under the protection of the Emperor Napoleon, butterfly pupa which have a golden colour. In the Aulic Council ceased to exist. AULIS. [EGRIPOS.] **AU'LOLEPIS, a fossil genus of Cycloïd fishes, from the chalk of Sussex and Kent. (Agassiz.) AULO PORA (Goldfuss), a fossil genus of Polypiaria, from the Silurian strata. England, those of the peacock (Vanessa Tö) and the small tortoiseshell (Vanessa Urtica) butterflies are beautiful examples, and may be seen in abundance hanging to the common stinging nettles about the latter end of the month of June. [PUPA.] AURELIANUS, CELIUS. [CELIUS AURELIANUS.] AULUS GELLIUS. [GELLIUS.] AUMALE, CHARLES DE LORRAINE, DUC D', was the son of Claude d'Aumale, who was AURELIA'NUS, LU'CIUS DOMITIUS, is governor of Burgundy, and uncle to Henry, duke commonly said to have been born at Sirmium, in of Guise, the head of the League. [GUISE.] Pannonia; but the place and time of his birth are Charles d'Aumale entered into the party of the uncertain. His father was a husbandman. At League, which, under pretence of suppressing the an early age he enlisted as a common soldier. Huguenots, aspired to the supreme power. After Tall, handsome, and strong, skilful and diligent in the assassination of the Duke of Guise in De- all athletic and military exercises, temperate in cember 1588, D'Aumale and the Duke of his habits, and of acute intellect, he rose from his Mayenne became the heads of their party. humble station to the highest military offices, D'Aumale in 1589 took possession of Paris, from during the reigns of Valerian and Claudian. His which King Henry III. had been obliged to re-discipline was strict even to severity. He wrote tire, and he dissolved the parliament by force, and to his lieutenant, 'If you wish to become tribune, sent its members to the Bastile. After the sur- or to live, keep the soldiery in order. Let no render of Paris to Henry IV., D'Aumale joined one steal another man's fowl, nor touch his sheep. the Spaniards, who had invaded the province of Let none plunder grapes, nor injure_corn-fields. Picardy, for which he was declared guilty of high- Let none exact oil, salt, or wood. Let each be treason by the parliament of Paris, and sentenced content with his own rations. Let each get rich to be broken on the wheel, which sentence was from the booty of the enemy, not from the tears executed in effigy the 24th of July, 1595. of the provincials,' &c. D'Aumale, however, continued to reside abroad, chiefly in Flanders, enjoying the favour of the Spanish government. He died at Brussels in 1631, in his seventy-seventh year. (Lacretelle, Histoire de France pendant les Guerres de Religion.) AUNIS, the smallest of the former provinces of France. It now forms the north-western portion of the department of CHARENTE INFERIEURE. Rochelle was the capital of the province, in which were included the islands of Ré and Oleron. On the death of Claudius, A.D. 270, Quintillus, brother of Claudius, assumed the purple, but put himself to death at the end of seventeen days, on hearing that the legions of the Danube had raised Aurelian to the imperial dignity. The new emperor suppressed an inroad of the Suevi and Sarmatæ, and compelled them to retreat north of the Danube; but he withdrew the Roman troops from Dacia, and made the Danube the frontier of the empire. Aurelian was recalled to the north of Italy by an invasion of the Alemanni or AURANTIA CEE, or the Orange Tribe, are Marcomanni, who after a hard contest were dedicotyledonous polypetalous plants, with dark-stroyed, A.D. 271. Aurelian now visited Rome, green jointed leaves, filled with fragrant essential and punished with severity the authors of a sedioil collected in little transparent dots, and a tion which had disturbed the city. The disturbsuperior ovary changing to a succulent berry, the ance at Rome was owing to the Monetarii,' who rind of which is also filled with fragrant essential were apparently the persons who managed the oil. No natural order can well be more strictly defined than the orange tribe, and none have properties more uniform and definite. It consists of trees or shrubs found exclusively in the temperate or tropical parts of the Old World, and unknown in a wild state in America. Their flowers are usually odoriferous, and their fruits subacid; the public coinage, which they had probably debased for the sake of their own profit. We know that Aurelian afterwards issued an improved coinage. Gibbon (ch. xi. end), puts this disturbance after Aurelian's triumph. Aurelian at this time was master only of the central vortion of the empire. Spain, Gaul, and Britain, acknowledged Tetricus; but he was in possession of a power which he could not wield and dared not resign. He is said to have himself betrayed his own army into a defeat near Châlons, while he himself, with a few friends, took refuge with Aurelian. Spain and Britain acknowledged the victor. Gibbon places these events in 271, contrary to most other historians, who make them subsequent to the fall of Zenobia. (Vopiscus, cap. 32.) (Vopiscus, in the Historia Augusta; Eutropius; Aur. Victor; Gibbon, c. xi.) AURELIUS, MARCUS (or, as he is called on his medals and elsewhere, MARCUS ANTONINUS), was the son of Annius Verus and Domitia Calvilla. Aurelius was born at Rome, on the 26th of April, A.D. 121, and was named Marcus Annius Verus. Hadrian, with whom he was a favourite from infancy, familiarly called him Verissimus (most true), which was a kind of play on his name. To his natural disposition and early acquirements he owed his adoption into the Aurelian family by Antoninus Pius, who was himself adopted by Hadrian, upon condition that he should adopt Annius Verus, and the son of a The west being secured, Aurelian prepared to reduce Palmyra. [PALMYRA; ZENOBIA.] Odenathus, prince of Palmyra, was dead, and succeeded by his widow, Zenobia, a woman of accomplished tastes and masculine talents. The march of Aurelian was through Illyricum and deceased favourite, L. Ceionius Commodus Elius Thrace to Byzantium, and thence through Asia Verus Cæsar, who was to have been his successor; Minor to Antioch. Antioch opened its gates this son was named Lucius Verus. [VERUS.] after a slight skirmish at Daphne. This is the The father of Aurelius dying while he was young, statement of Vopiscus; but Eutropius speaks of a his grandfather took charge of his education. We severe battle at Antioch, and makes no mention learn from Aurelius that he had masters in every of that fought at Emesa. The hostile armies met science and polite art, whose names and qualificaat Emesa, in Syria, where Aurelian gained a tions he has gratefully recorded. (Medit.' i. 1.) decisive victory, and continued his march to Pal- These men were not only tutors, but models upon myra unopposed, except by the attacks of the which the more perfect character of Aurelius was 'Syrian robbers.' The resistance of the city did formed; the foundation of which, however, he credit to its warlike fame. Aurelian offered piously says was laid by his parents. Most of favourable terms of capitulation-an honourable his teachers were Stoics. One of the most disretreat to Zenobia, and the reservation of their tinguished of them, Rusticus, procured him a rights to the Palmyrenians; but a haughty copy of the works of Epictetus, which conanswer was returned by the queen. Zenobia at firmed his natural inclination to Stoicism; he delast felt resistance to be hopeless, and she tried lighted in commenting upon them, and thanked to escape, but was intercepted and brought to the the gods for furnishing him with a manual from Roman camp. The soldiers clamoured for her which he could collect wherewith to conduct his death. Aurelian refused to shed female blood; life with honour to himself and advantage to his but he took his revenge on her advisers, among country. The life and writings of the emperor whom perished Longinus, who had been Zenobia's rank him indeed amongst the best teachers and instructor in Grecian literature. The city sur-brightest ornaments of the stoical school. He rendered A.D. 273, and was not plundered. applied himself to the study of law under the jurist L. Volusianus Maecianus. Aurelian had already returned to Europe, when he heard that the Palmyrenians had revolted, and After the death of Hadrian Aurelius married his massacred the small garrison. He returned in cousin Faustina, daughter of Antoninus Pius. wrath, and inflicted a cruel vengeance on the Upon the death of Antoninus, A.D. 161, with people. Aurelian was recalled a third time to whom Marcus had been already associated in the the East by a rebellion in Egypt, excited by administration, he took the name of Antoninus, Firmus, a rich merchant. This was immediately quelled by the emperor's presence, and he returned to Rome, where he celebrated his victories with a magnificent triumph. (Vopiscus, chap. 33, &c.) After visiting Gaul and Illyricum, Aurelian set out on an expedition against Persia, to revenge the defeat and degradation of Valerian. On his march between Heraclea and Byzantium he was assassinated by some of his officers, in October, 274 (in 275, according to some), after reigning from five and a half to six years, according to Vopiscus and Aurelius Victor. Gibbon, without quoting his authority, makes it four years and nine months. He left a single daughter, whose descendants remained at Rome when Vopiscus wrote. This stern and successful soldier had many great qualities, among which temperance, love of order, and justice, were conspicuous. His faults were those of his education and his military habits. and associated Lucius Verus with himself in the empire: he also gave him his daughter Lucilla in marriage. A troublesome reign ensued, and the life of a philosopher and an emperor who loved peace was almost entirely occupied with war. At the beginning of the reign there were disturbances on the German border, and a Parthian war broke out. Verus took the command in this war, and returned victorious, A.D. 166, but the rejoicings of a triumph were followed by a grievous pestilence in Rome. In A.D. 167, the two emperors marched together across the Alps against the Marcomanni, and obliged them to sue for peace. During another expedition Verus died, B.C. 169. In the year 170 Aurelius prepared for a more serious war against the northern nations. During this campaign a battle was fought with the Iazyges on the frozen Danube; and in the year 174 an event happened which has given rise to much controversy: the army of Aurelius, being unwarily drawn into a defile by the Quadi, was nearly overcome by the attacks of |