free citizens, and private individuals, who live on their rents or the proceeds of their industry, were all exempted by law from this cruel and degrading punishment. By the original code, the number of blows to be given was from three to thirty-nine; but a later clause permitted them, in certain cases, to be carried to seventy-five; but in practice this is often exceeded, nor are the privileges always respected.

(D'Ohsson, Tableau Général de l'Empire Othoman.)

in that country from the commencement of the 12th century, and which were more systematically conducted there than in any other part of Europe, gave rise to this, as well as to many other inventions for military purposes. The precise date of its first formation is quite unknown; but if we omit the improbable story related by Folard, that the Turkish commander, Achmet Pasha, caused bastions to be constructed about Otranto, when he took that place in 1480, we may observe that it is spoken of under the name BA'STION. This term is applied to a species of Balvardo, as an improvement of great imof tower which constitutes the principal member portance in the military art, by Tartaglia, in his of the fortifications immediately surrounding aQuesiti ed Inventi Diversi,' which was published town, or position to be defended. The rampart in 1546; and in the same work is given a plan by which it is formed is disposed on four sides of of the fortifications of Turin, which exhibits a a pentagon, two of which, called the faces, meet bastion at each of the four angles of the rampart. in an angle whose vertex projects towards the Both Vasari, in his 'Lives of the Architects,' country; the other two, denominated the flanks, and Maffei, in his Verona Illustrata,' ascribe connect the opposite extremities of the faces with the invention to San Micheli of Verona: one of the curtain, or that part of the rampart which the bastions of this city has on it the date 1527, coincides in direction with the sides of a polygon and its construction is still ascribed to that ensupposed to inclose the town: the fifth side of the gineer, who, in fact, was about that time empentagon is generally unoccupied by a rampart, ployed in the erection or repair of several of the and is called the gorge of the bastion. fortresses in Italy. From the word Balvardo, denoting a stronghold, the earliest French engineers gave to this work the appellation of Boulevard; and such is its designation in the treatise of Errard, which was published in 1594. The term Bestion appears to have been taken from the Italian writers, for Maggi, in his treatise 'Della Fortificatione delle Citta,' applies the term Bastioni to redoubts constructed of earth; and, according to Pere Daniel, the French subsequently gave to such works the name of Bastilles, or Bastides. Froissart also uses these terms in speaking of the forts executed during the siege of Ventadour by the Duc de Berri, under Charles VI. It should be remarked, however, that Errard applies the name of Bastion indifferently to works in the situation of those now so called, and to those to which the name of Ravelin is generally given; and doubtless it denoted originally any work of earth constructed on the exterior of one more ancient.

From the infancy of the art of war the defenders of a fortress felt the necessity of having the walls disposed so as to afford means of observing the enemy when very near their foot, and therefore projecting towers were constructed at intervals on the exterior of the walls. When such towers did not exist, the enemy was enabled to plant his scaling-ladders against the wall, or even to make a breach in the wall itself, with almost perfect security.

From the accounts given by ancient writers of their fortified places, and particularly from the precepts of Vitruvius (Architectura,' lib. i. cap. 5), we learn that the projecting towers, which were always small, were sometimes square or polygonal, but generally circular, and that their distance from each other along the walls was regulated by the range of the weapons employed in the defence. In the fortifications of cities this distance seems to have varied from 80 to 100 paces, according to local circumstances, and the It appears that it had been the practice from power of annoying the enemy by the arrows and the earliest times to form a rampart, or bank javelins discharged from the towers; but, from of earth, in front of the walls of fortresses, in the greater distance at which modern arms take order to secure the latter from the destructive effect, the bastions, measuring from the ver- effects of the battering-ram; and it is easy to tices of their projecting angles, are now generally, conceive that, by forming such a bank in front and agreeably to the rules of Vauban, placed at of the old towers of a place, so as to connect about 380 yards from each other. The invention those previously existing in front of the adjacent of artillery rendered it necessary to enlarge the curtains, the work would assume a figure like towers for the purpose of receiving the guns; that of a modern bastion; and indeed would very and to increase the thickness of the rampart, that much resemble one of the detached bastions in it might be able as well to resist the concussion what is called the second system of Vauban; the produced by the discharge of the ordnance upon it as the shock of the enemy's artillery when fired against it. The ramparts were therefore constructed of earth; a revetment of brick or stone, of a height which was supposed to be great enough to render it impossible for the enemy to mount it by scaling ladders, being built against it on the exterior.

It is to Italy that we must look for the invention of the modern bastion: the wars which raged

original tower of the fortress occupying the place of the interior bastion of that system, and constituting a sort of retrenchment to the new work. The construction was proposed in 1584 by Castriotto, seemingly as if it had been his own idea; but probably he meant only to recommend the adoption of a kind of work which must have been then a novelty.

In the cut, the line A B represents one side of the polygon supposed to inclose the town for

The pentagonal figure ƒ Eg represents a bastion as it is now usually constructed; the ramparts immediately above ƒ and g are the flanks; those which unite below E are the faces, and an imaginary line from f to g is the gorge. The rampart e f is the curtain joining the right flank of one bastion to the left flank of the next. The bastion f Eg is divided into two parts by the line E B for the purpose of showing two methods of forming the interior: the left half has the space within the rampart of the face and flank on a level with the natural ground, and the right half has the interior about 10 feet higher than the ground. The second method is that which is generally preferred, because it affords some facilities for the formation and defence of interior parapets or retrenchments.

the form of an arc of a circle, like a portion of a round tower, as at M, and the projection received the name of orecchione or orillon. Besides masking the lower flanks from the effect of any enfilading, or lateral fire, it concealed one or more guns on the upper flank from the fire of an enemy's battery directly opposed to that flank, while it permitted those guns to defend the main ditch and the breach made by the enemy in face of the collateral bastion. Eventually, however, lower flanks ceased to be constructed because they contracted too much the interior of the bastion to which they belonged; and because the enemy's fire, soon destroying the parapets of those above, masses of brickwork fell among the defenders below, and obliged them to quit their guns at the very time that their service was most required. The orillons, moreover, are now considered useless, as they contract the length of the flank; and the guns which they protect from a fire in their front are liable to be dismounted by a fire from their rear.

In order to obtain a powerful fire for the defence of the main ditch, engineers were induced, at one time, to form the bastion with a double, and even a triple flank on each side, the flanks receding from each other, from below upwards, in the manner of terraces, towards the interior In what are called the second and third sysof the bastion, as at e; and, to prevent the enemy tems of Vauban, the principal bastions are defrom dismounting the guns in the lower flanks by tached from the enceinte by a ditch in their rear, batteries raised in the prolongations of those and consequently the capture of those works flanks, it became necessary to mask them by ex- would not immediately compel the surrender of tending the rampart of the face beyond them, the fortress. In these systems, a small bastion and giving it a return towards the curtain; this of brickwork, closed by a parapet wall at its return was frequently rectilinear, but generally in gorge, is constructed at each of the angles formed

by the polygonal wall surrounding the place. si, Such (Vanga striata, Quoy and Gaimard), The fire from the parapets of these tower bas- may be taken as an illustration. tions, as they are called, would have a powerful, Dr. Such states this to be the largest species effect in preventing the enemy, after he has yet known, and gives thirteen inches as the length breached and stormed the great bastions, from of the body. The bill is black and very much erecting batteries in them to destroy the interior compressed. In the male (which is the sex here walls; and, in order to preserve the artillery of their flanks uninjured till the end of the siege, engineers placed it in casemates [CASEMATE], from whence it might pour a destructive fire upon the assailants when crossing the ditch of the enceinte.

In the above cut, the space F G E is the main ditch; and H and K are the positions of batteries which might be constructed by the enemy to silence the fire from the triple flank at e. The outworks P, G, Q, R, L, S, [TENAILLE, CAPONNIERE, RAVELIN, COVERED-WAY, RE-ENTERING PLACE OF ARMS, and GLACIS], are described under those words.

(Vitruvius, De Architectura; Maggi, Della Fortificatione delle Citta, Venetia, 1584; Errard, La Fortification réduite en Art, Par. 1600; De Ville, L'Ingénieur Parfait, Par. 1672; Vauban, Euvres Militaires, par Foissac, Par. 1795; Bousmard, Essai Général de Fortification, Par. 1814; St. Paul, Traité Complet de Fortification, Par. 1806; Maj.-Gen. Pasley, Course of Elementary Fortification, Lond. 1822; Major Straith, A Treatise on Fortification, Lond. 1836.)

BAT. [CHEIROPTERA.]

BATA'RA, D'Azara's name for the Bush Shrikes, forming the genus Thamnophilus of Vieillot. A very good account of these birds, which appear to have been found between the northern and southern points of Canada and Paraguay, will be found in the Memoirs' of Dr. Such and Mr. Swainson, published in the Zoological Journal.' The latter zoologist considers the typical group to consist of the species with long

Thamnophilus Vigorsii.

figured) the back, wings, and tail are black, broadly banded with fulvous, and the under part of the body is a dirty whitish brown. On the head is a rufous crest which is blackish at the apex. In the female the bands are whitish and the crest blackish, and the under part of the body ash colour.

Thamnophilus navius, the Spotted Shrike of Latham, is an example of the round and comparatively short-tailed division.

Thamnophilus nævius.

Leach thus describes it from a specimen in the British Museum: Black; back and belly ash coloured; the former anteriorly spotted with white; quills of the wings externally, and the tips of those of the tail, white; under part of the body ash colour, of which colour the back partakes in a considerable degree.

BATA TAS, the Malayan name of a convolvulaceous plant. The root was much eaten in the south of Europe before the cultivation of the potato, which both became a substitute for it and appro priated its name. The only species of any general interest is the Batatas edulis, the Convolvulus Batatas of authors. This plant, originally found wild in the woods of the Malayan archipelago, has been gradually dispersed over all the warmer parts of the world, where it is still an object of culture for the sake of its roots, which, when roasted or boiled. are mealy, sweet, and wholesome, but slightly laxative.

BATAVI, or BATA'VI (the forms Badai and Betavi also occur in inscriptions), the name of the ancient inhabitants of South Holland, and some adjacent parts. The Batavi were a Germanic tribe who, some time before the age of Caesar, settled on the banks of the Vahalis, the present Waal, a branch of the Lower Rhine. They oc cupied the district between the Vahalis and the

tails; and of this division, Thamnophilus, Vigor- Mosa above their junction, and also the island

formed by the northern arm of the Rhine (or in 6° 9′ S. lat., 106° 52′ E. long. It was forRhine of Leiden), the Vahalis and Mosa after merly a native village called Jaccatra. The Engtheir junction, and the ocean; which island now lish and Dutch had factories here, that of the constitutes part of the province of South Holland. former was established in 1618, that of the Cæsar (De Bell. Gall.' iv. 10), who mentions latter in 1612; but the Dutch, having contheir country by the name of Insula Batavorum,quered the country, founded the town of Baor Island of the Batavi, appears to consider it as tavia, to which they removed the government belonging to Germany, and not to Gaul; the from Bantam in 1619. It finally became the limits of Belgic Gaul on that side being placed at capital of their East Indian empire, and the the southern branch of the Rhine, or Waal, after residence of the governor general. It remained its junction with the Mosa, or Maas. Cæsar did uninterruptedly in the hands of the Dutch till not carry the war into the country of the Batavi. 1811, when, Holland having become a province Under Augustus the Batavi became allies of the of the French empire, Batavia fell into the Romans. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, dug hands of the French, from whom it was taken a canal, Fossa Drusiana, which connected the by the English. By the treaty of 1815 it was Rhine with the modern Yssel. Besides the restored to the Dutch, who returned to the Batavi, there was another people on the same government in the following year. island, called by the Roman historians Cannine- Batavia is an important place, from its excellent fates, who were of the same origin as the Batavi. bay and its advantageous position for European (Tacitus, 'Hist.' iv. 15.) Under the reigns of commerce. It stands at the mouth of the river Trajan and Hadrian, the Romans had completely Jaccatra, in the midst of swamps and marshes, established their dominion over the Batavi; for surrounded by trees and jungle, which prevent we find in the Antonine Itinerary and the the exhalations from being carried off by a free Peutinger Table two Roman roads across the circulation of the air, and render the town pecucountry, one from Lugdunum (Leiden) eastward liarly obnoxious to marsh miasmata. Besides this, to Trajectum (Utrecht), and following the course all the principal streets are traversed by canals, of the northern Rhine to its separation from the planted on each side with rows of trees, over Vahalis, and another from Lugdunum southward which there are bridges at the end of almost across the island to the Mosa, and then eastward every street. They have also booms, which are along the bank of that river and the Vahalis to drawn across at sunset to prevent the passage of Noviomagus (Nymegen). The Batavi were em- boats in and out. These canals are the common ployed by Agricola in his wars in Britain. receptacles for all the filth of the town. In the (Tacit. Agric.' 36.) In some inscriptions they dry season the stagnant and diminished waters are called 'friends and brothers of the Roman emit a most intolerable stench, while in the wet people,' or of the 'Roman emperors.' The date season they overflow their banks, and leave a of one of these inscriptions is determined by the quantity of offensive slime. From these united name of the Emperor Aurelius. (Gruter. Ixxi.) causes it is not surprising that Batavia has been Although the name Batavi has fallen into disuse, considered the most unhealthy spot in the world, it has always been employed by modern authors and has been designated the storehouse of disease. writing in Latin to signify the Dutch or Hol- From 1730 to 1752 an account of the deaths was landers generally. The name of the Batavi can kept, which gave a total exceeding 1,100,000. be traced even now in that of Betuwe, which is During the French occupation, the walls of the a district of the ancient Batavorum Insula, be- town were removed by General Daendels with tween the Rhine, the Waal, and the Lek. the view of admitting a freer circulation of air, [BETUWE.] and with the materials the cantonment of Weltevreden was built, a short distance from the The dimensions of the dis-town inland. Since 1815 the example of the French general has been extensively followed, and a new city with wide streets, commodious houses, and large squares, has been built further inland. The government offices, the warehouses, and stores of the merchants which are occupied only during the day, are kept up in the old town, which is now permanently inhabited chiefly by the Chinese, the Malays, and the descendants of the old Portuguese settlers. In the old town the most remarkable buildings are the custom-house, the bonding warehouses, the lombongs or coffee stores, the exchange, the bank of Java, the factory of the commercial company, the Chinese and Portuguese hospitals. In the new city the large military barracks, the stadthaus, the military hospital, the catholic church, the prison, the military clubhouse, and the theatre, are built round the square of Weltevreden. In Könings Plein (King's Square) there is a beautiful Protestant church, and between it and Weltevreden a new citadel

BATA VIA, a district in the northern part of the island of Java. trict are about 24 leagues from E. to W., and about 7 leagues from N. to S.

The district of Batavia is divided into four departments, one of which consists of the city of Batavia and its suburbs. Near to the sea-shore the country is flat, but rises with a gentle acclivity towards the south to the mountain-range, which intersects the island from the western to the eastern extremity. This district is well watered. The river Jaccatra, which joins the sea at the town of Batavia, dividing it into two nearly equal parts, has a bar at its mouth which prevents the entrance of any but the smallest boats. The chief products of the district are rice, sugar, cotton, fruits, pepper, and coffee.

(Stavorinus's Voyages; Count Hogendorp's Coup d'Eil sur l'Ile de Java, &c., 1830.)

BATAVIA is a city on the north coast of Java, situated at the bottom of an extensive bay, about 60 miles E.S.E. of the Straits of Sunda,

is being erected. Along the Ryswijk canal are the governor's house, Harmony house, where fêtes are given, and the hotel of the literary society. Among the literary and scientific establishments may be mentioned the society of arts and sciences, to which belongs a museum of natural history, and the primary school which is under the superintendence of the government.

The population of Batavia, according to the census of 1824, was 53,861, of whom 23,108 were Javanese or Malays, 12,419 slaves, 3,025 Europeans, 601 Arabians, and 14,708 Chinese. The Chinese farm the revenues, are the principal artisans, and manufacture the sugar and arrack. They suffer greatly from disease, and the mortality among them is very great, owing to the closeness of their apartments and their gross manner of living. Many junks arrive annually from China, bringing about 1000 settlers. In 1742, in consequence of a supposed organised plan of insurrection on the part of the Chinese, the Dutch government perpetrated a most cold-blooded massacre, in which more than one-half of the Chinese were murdered.

The country around Batavia is very beautiful and fertile, though flat in the vicinity of the town. Markets are regularly held, which are remarkably well supplied with fruit: the principal sorts are, pine-apples, oranges, shaddocks, lemons, limes, mangoes, bananas, grapes, melons, pomegranates, custard-apples, papaws, mangosteens, and rombusteens, with many others mostly unknown in Europe. Fowls, ducks, and geese, are plentiful and cheap; turkeys, pigeons, and wild-fowl, are in general very scarce, and butcher's meat inferior and dear: of fish there is an abundant supply. The chief imports are opium and piece goods; the exports, sugar, coffee, and spices: salt also forms an important article of colonial commerce. Near Batavia there are some very extensive works for making salt from sea-water.

baths of the Romans were generally called therma, which literally means 'warm waters.'

The bath was in common use among the Greeks, though we are not well acquainted with the construction and economy of their bathing-places. At Athens there were both private and public baths: the public baths appear to have been the property of individuals, who kept them for their own profit or let them to others. (Isæus, ' On the Inheritance of Dicæogenes,' cap. vi., and ́ of Philoctemon,' cap. vi.) Lucian, in his Hippias' (vol. iii. ed. Hemsterh.), has given a description of a magnificent bath. Though he does not tell us whether it was built in the Roman or the Greek style, we may conclude that he is speaking of a bath in a Greek city. His description is not precise enough to render it certain that this bath in its details agrees with those of Rome and Pompeii; but the general design and arrangement appear to be nearly the same.

Seneca says that the Roman baths were very simple, even mean and dark, in the time of Scipio Africanus; and it was not until the age of Agrippa, and the emperors after Augustus, that they were built and finished in a style of luxury almost incredible. Seneca (Epist.' lxxxvi.), who inveighs against this luxury, observes that 'a person was held to be poor and sordid whose baths did not shine with a profusion of the most precious materials, the marbles of Egypt inlaid with those of Numidia; unless the walls were laboously stuccoed in imitation of painting; unless the chambers were covered with glass, the basins with the rare Thasian stone, and the water conveyed through silver pipes. These it appears were the luxuries of plebeian baths. Those of freedmen had a profusion of statues, a number of columns supporting nothing, placed as an ornament merely on account of the expense: the water murmuring down steps, and the floor of precious stones.' (Seneca, 'Epist.' lxxxvi.) These baths of which Seneca speaks were private baths.

The anchorage of Batavia is a bay about 11 miles long and 6 wide, capable of containing any Ammianus Marcellinus reckons sixteen public number of vessels of the largest size; it is studded baths in Rome. The chief were those of Agrippa, with several small islands, averaging half a mile Nero, Titus, Domitian, Antoninus Caracalla, and in diameter, all of which are now unoccupied, Diocletian. These edifices were all constructed except Onrust, in which is the naval arsenal. on a common plan. They stood in extensive These islands protect the bay from any heavy gardens with walks, and were often surrounded swell; and, as the bottom is very tenacious, it by a portico. The main building contained large becomes a perfectly safe anchorage. But when halls for swimming and bathing, some for conthe sea-breeze blows strong it causes a cockling versation, others for various athletic and manly sea, which renders the communication with the exercises, and some for the declamation of poets town unpleasant, and sometimes dangerous. The and the lectures of philosophers; in a word, for rise of tide is about six feet. every species of polite and manly amusement. (Raffles's History of Java; Staunton's Embassy These noble rooms were lined and paved with to China; Cook's Voyages; Crawfurd's History marble, adorned with the most valuable columns, of the Indian Archipelago; Horsburgh's East paintings, and statues, and furnished with colleeIndia Directory; Hogendorp's Coup d'Eil, tions of books for the studious who resorted to &c.) them. (Pompeii,' published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. i.) These baths, which were called thermo, are now all in ruins. The best preserved are those of Titus, Diocletian, and Antoninus Caracalla. The baths of Caracalla were finished, according to Eusebius, in the fourth year of that emperor's reign.

BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. [NETHERLANDS.] BATH, a place for the purpose of washing the body, either with hot, warm, or cold water: the word is derived from the Saxon bad. The Greek name is balaneion (Baλavitov), of which the Roman balineum, or balneum, is only a slight variation the elements bal and bad in the Greek and Eng- The most complete baths had generally lish words are evidently related. The public the following apartments:-an apodytérium, or