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the church (which, it must be owned, had somewhat lowered its moral standard) could fairly take objection, and many, on the other hand, which it hailed with joyful assent. Thus the development of Roman law must be recognised as a preliminary step to the amalgamation of state and church.

(4) At first sight it seems as though after the middle of the third century the state had met the church in a far more hostile spirit and had therefore been far less capable of appreciating it than in the preceding epoch. But although it is true that the systematic persecution of the church first began under Decius, yet the conclusion that therefore the state cannot have appreciated the church does not hold good in fact. Rather, the persecutions of Decius and Valerian prove, as has been suggested before, that these emperors realised the danger the old political system implied in the existence of the church more clearly than their predecessors had done. They accordingly endeavoured to extirpate the church, as Diocletian's co-emperor did likewise. But these attempts must be regarded as desperate and (with the exception of the last named) short-lived experiments. During the early years of the reign of Valerian and from 260 to 302 the church enjoyed almost absolute peace within the empire; and, above all, the imperial government recognised the importance of the bishops and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. This is proved not only by the persecutory edicts, but, as has been said above, by peaceful acts. Gallienus and Aurelian wrote letters to the bishops, and the latter even tried by peaceful means to use their influence to strengthen Roman dominion; nay, Maximinus Daza actually attempted to copy the constitution of the church and to organise the pagan system of worship in similar fashion. Under the circumstances it was much simpler to ally the hierarchy of the church itself with the state than to make any such attempt. That the strength of the church lay in the hierarchy the despots had long recognised. Accordingly as soon as he had decided in favour of Christianity, Constantine joined hands with the bishops. He not only joined hands with them, but he honoured them and bestowed privileges upon them, for he was anxious to secure their power for the state. His success was immediate; the hierarchy put itself - unreservedly, we may say at his disposal when once he had set the cross upon his standard. Thus the state within the state was abolished; the strongest political force then existent, to wit, the church, was made the cornerstone of the state. Both parties, the emperor and the bishops, were equally well pleased; history seldom has a conclusion of peace like this to record, in which both contracting parties broke forth into rejoicings. And both were fully justified in their rejoicing, for a thing for which a way had been slowly made ready now had come to light; the empire gained a strong support and the church was delivered from an undignified position, in which she could not avail herself freely of the forces at her disposal. The church of the fourth century not only accomplished much more than the church of the period between 250 and 325, but she brought forth men of greater distinction and more commanding character.

BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY CHAPTERS

[The letter a is reserved for Editorial Matter.]

CHAPTER XXIX. THE EMPIRE AND THE PROVINCES (15 B.C.-14 A.D.)

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GEORG WEBER, Allgemeine Weltgeschichte. VICTOR GARDTHAUSEN, Augustus und seine Zeit. -d JOACHIM MARQUARDT (in collab, with Theodor Mommsen), Römische Staatsverwaltung CHARLES MERIVALE, A History of the Romans under the Empire.

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CHAPTER XXX. THE GERMAN PEOPLE AND THE EMPIRE (16 B.C.-19 A.D.) F. C. SCHLOSSER, Weltgeschichte für das Deutsche Volk.- GEORG WEBER, op. cit.d EDUARD MEYER, Untersuchungen über die Schlacht im Teutoberger Walde. —e CAIUS VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, Compendium of the History of Rome (translated from the Latin by J. S. Watson). - FLORUS, Epitome of Roman History (translated from the Latin by J. S. Watson). - CORNELIUS TACITUS, Annales.

CHAPTER XXXI: THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS: ASPECTS OF ITS CIVILISATION (30 B.C.-14 A.D.)

b VICTOR GARDTHAUSEN, op. cit. - GEORG WEBER, op. cit. -d KARL HOECK, Römische Geschichte vom Verfall der Republik bis zur Vollendung der Monarchie unter Constantin.— • Monumentum Ancyranum. - JOHANN HEINRICH KARL FRIEDRICH HERMANN SCHILLER, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit bis auf Theodosius den Grossen. - CHARLES MERIVALE, op. cit. B. G. NIEBUHR, The History of Rome (translated from the German by J. C. Hare, C. Thirlwall, W. Smith, and L. Schmitz). —¡ H. TÀINE, Essai sur Tite Live.

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE LAST YEARS OF AUGUSTUS (21 B.C.-14 A.D,)

GEORG WEBER, op. cit. CAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, The Lives of the Twelve Cæsars (Translated from the Latin by A. Thomson). · d THOMAS ARNOLD, History of the Later Roman Commonwealth. VICTOR GARDTHAUSEN, op. cit.

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CHAPTER XXXIII. THE IMMEDIATE SUCCESSORS OF AUGUSTUS: TIBERIUS, Caligula, and CLAUDIUS. (14-54 A.D.)

¿ VICTOR DURUY, Histoire Romaine jusqu'à l'invasion_des barbares. - CAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, op. cit. -d CORNELIUS TACITUS, op. cit. - THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, The History of Rome to the End of the Republic. — CHARLES MERIVALE, op. cit. - - CAIUS VALLEIUS PATERCULUS, op. cit. FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS, The Works of Josephus (translated from the Greek by William Whiston). HERRENIUS BYBLIUS PHILON, IIepi Ts Baoiλeías. — DION-CASSIUS COCCEIANUS, 'Pwμaïkh loropla. - PLINIUS SECUNDUS, Historia Naturalis. - LUCIUS ANNEUS SENECA, Apocolocyntosis. —m G. F. HERTZBERG, Geschichte der Römer im Alterthum.· n TARVER, Tiberius.

CHAPTER XXXIV. NERO: LAST Emperor of the House of Caesar (54–68 a.d.) VICTOR DURUY, op. cit. - CORNELIUS TACITUS, op. cit. -d CAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, op. cit. — CHARLES MERIVALE, op. cit. — THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, op. cit.

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CHAPTER XXXV. GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS, AND THE THREE FLAVIANS (68–96 a.d.) OLIVER GOLDSMITH, History of Rome.. CAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, op. cit.d F. C. SCHLOSSER. op. cit. -e THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, op. cit. - DION-CASSIUS COCCEIANUS, op. cit. 9 PLINIUS, op. cit.· -WILLIAM GELL (in collab. with John P. Gandy), Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices, and Ornaments of Pompeii.- CORNELIUS TACITUS, Historia. - ARTHUR MURPHY, in the Appendix to Book V of his translation of The Works of Cornelius Tacitus. * CHARLES MERIVALE, op. cit. — FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS, op. cit. m G. W. BOTSFORD, A History of Rome. —n V. DURUY, op. cit.

CHAPTER XXXVI. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS: NERVA TO MARCUS AURELIUS (96-180 a.d.) OLIVER GOLDSMITH, op. cit. - VICTOR DURUY, op. cit. -d J. ERNEST RENAN, Histoire des origines du Christianisme. EDWARD GIBBON, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.-F. C. SCHLOSSER, op. cit. DION-CASSIUS COCCEIANUS, op. cit. * XIPHILINUS, Επιτωμή τῆς Δίωνος Νικαέως ρωμαϊκῆς ἱστορίας. — ' R. W. BROWN, History of Roman Classical Literature. PLINIUS MINOR, Epistolæ. - R. BURN, Old Rome: a Handbook to the Ruins of the City and the Campagna.-CHARLES MERIVALE, op. cit. -m G. F. HERTZBERG, op. cit.—n J. B. BURY, Student's Roman Empire.

644 BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY CHAPTERS

CHAPTER XXXVII. THE PAGAN CREEDS AND THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY

JEAN FRANÇOIS DENIS, Histoire des théories et des idées morales de l'antiquité. — EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit. — BARTHÉLEMY AUBÉ, Histoire des Persécutions de l'Église. — DIONCASSIUS COCCEIANUS, op. cit. - EPICTETUS, in Arrian's Aiaтpißal 'EwiкTÝTOV and 'Eyxeipídiov ETIKTÁTOV. COCCEIANUS DION CHRYSOSTOM, Abyoɩ weρì Baoiλelas. — SENECA, Opera. — 1 MARCUS AURELIUS, Μάρκου ̓Αντωνίνου τοῦ αὐτοκρατορος τῶν εἰς ἑαυτὸν βιβλία ιβ (translated from the Greek by Jeremy Collier). — PLINIUS MINOR, Epistolæ. - CORNELIUS TACITUS, op. cit. CHAPTER XXXVIII. ASPECTS OF CIVILISATION OF THE FIRST Two CENTURIES OF THE EMPIRE J. ERNEST RENAN, op. cit. - CHARLES MERIVALE, op. cit.· d AULUS GELLIUS, Noctes Attica. M. L. G. BOISSIER, L'Opposition sous les Césars. — JOACHIM MARQuardt. op. cit. A. BOUCHE-LECLERCQ, Manuel des institutions romaines. - M. L. G. BOISSIER, La religion romaine d'Auguste aux Antonins.-J. Y. SHEPPARD, The Fall of Rome and the Rise of New Nationalities. — H. S. WILLIAMS, History of the Art of Writing. — VALERIUS MAXIMUS, De Factis Dictisque Memorabilibus Libri IX.-W. A. BECKER, Gallus, oder 1ömische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts.

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CHAPTER XXXIX. A HALF CENTURY OF DECLINE: COMMODUS TO ALEXANDER SEVERUS (161-235 A.D.)

b G. F. HERTZBERG, op. cit. THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, op. cit. d HERODIANUS, 'Hpmdiavoû τῆς μετὰ Μάρκον Βασιλείας ἱστοριῶν βιβλία ὀκτώ. - DION-CASSIUS COCCEIANUS, op. cit. - AugusTAN HISTORY (Historia Augustæ Scriptores). - HENRY FYNES CLINTON, Fasti Romani. h ZOSIMUS, The History of Count Zosimus (translated from the Greek). —¡ Xiphilinus, op. cit. J. ERNEST RENAN, op. cit.

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CHAPTER XL. CONFUSION WORSE CONFOUNDED: THE SECOND HALF OF THE THIRD CENTURY OF EMPIRE (235–285 a.v.)

b G. F. HERTZBERG, op. cit. THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, op. cit. • JOHANNES ZONARAS, Xpovikov (Annales).

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CHAPTER XLI. NEW HOPE FOR THE EMPIRE: THE AGE OF DIOCLETIAN AND CONSTANTINE

(286-337 A.D.)

b F. C. SCHLOSSER, op. cit. - EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit. -d ZOSIMUS, op. cit. HODGKIN, Italy and her Invaders.

-e THOMAS

CHAPTER XLII. THE SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE TO THE DEATH OF JULIAN (337-363 a.d.) b EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit. - S. REINHARDT, Der Perserkrieg des Kaisers Julian. -d AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus (translated from the Latin by C. D. Yonge). · THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, op. cit.

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CHAPTER XLIV. THE DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. (395–408 A.D.)

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b EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit. — F. C. SCHLOSSER, op. cit. -d ZOSIMUS, ioropía vea. — e ÓLYMPIODORUS, loтopikol Xóyoi. - SUIDAS, Lexicon. - OROSIUS, Historiarum adversus Paganos libri VII. —h S. LE NAIN DE TILLEMONT, Histoire des Empereurs et des autres princes qui ont régné pendant les six premiers siècles de l'Église.

CHAPTER XLV. THE GOTHS IN ITALY (408-423 a.d.)

EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit.

CHAPTER XLVI. THE HUNS AND THE VANDALS (423-455 A.D.)
THOMAS HODGKIN, Italy and her Invaders.

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b EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit. De Getarum origine et rebus gestis.

CHAPTER XLVII. THE FALL OF ROME (430-476 a.d.)

-d JORDANES,

T. HODGKIN, article "Vandals," in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.• EDWARD GIBBON, op. cit. -d R. H. WRIGHTSON, The Sancta Republica Romana. -e EDUARD VON WIETERSHEIM, Geschichte der Völkerwanderung. - AMÉDÉE THIERRY, Récits de l'histoire romaine au cinquième siècle. - T. HODGKIN, Italy and her Invaders. - KURT BREYSIG, Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit.-J. B. BURY, History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROMAN HISTORY

BASED CHIEFLY UPON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED IN
THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT WORK; WITH CRITICAL
AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

[For convenience of reference, the Byzantine historians are included here, though their work has to do chiefly with the period treated in vol. VII. Further notes on many of the Roman historians may be found above (p. 15), and in vols. V (p. 25) and VII (p. 1)].

A. Classical and Later Latin Works

Elianus, Claudius, Пokiλn Iσropía, edited by Perizonius, Leyden, 1701; translated from the Greek by A. Fleming, The Variable History of Elian, London, 1576. (A biographical notice of this writer has been given in vol. I, p. 295.) — Agobardus, Works, edited by Baluze, Paris, 1666; edited by Migne, in his Patrologiæ Latine, vol. CIV, Paris, 1844-1855; edited by Chevallard, Lyons, 1869. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum Libri XXXI, edited by Accorsi, Augsburg, 1532, 5 vols.; edited by Wagner and Erfurdt, Leipsic, 1808, 3 vols.; English translation by C. D. Yonge, The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus, London, 1862.

Ammianus Marcellinus, by birth a Syrian Greek, served many years in the imperial bodyguards. His history covered a period of 282 years, from the accession of Nerva, 96 A.D., to the death of Valens, 378 A.D. Of its thirty-one books the last eighteen have been preserved. These include the transactions of twenty-five years only, but they are valuable as a source because of the author's conscientious effort to be truthful and of his first-hand knowledge of the events he describes.

Anastasius, see Liber Pontificalis. -Annales Alamannici (741-779), founded on Annales Mosellani. — Annales S. Amandi (708-810), founded on Annales Mosellani. Annales Fuldenses, records of the monastery of Fulda. -Annales Guelferbytani, or Wolfenbüttel Codex (741-805), founded on Annales Mosellani. — Annales Laurissenses or Laureshamenses (741-829), composed at Lorsch.-Annales Maximiani (710–811), founded on Annales Mosellani. — Annales Mettenses, composed at Metz or Laon about the end of the tenth century. Annales Mosellani (703-797), composed at the monastery of St. Martin in Cologne. Annales Nazariani (741-790), founded on Annales Mosellani. Annales Petaviani (708-799), founded on Annales Mosellani; original from 717-799.

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The foregoing annals of the German monasteries possess varying historical value. They have all been edited by Pertz, in Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Hanover, 1819, in

progress.

Appianus Alexandrinus, Papaikn ioropía, edited by Schweighauser, Leipsic, 1785, 3 vols.; translated from the Greek by J. D(ancer), "The History of Appian of Alexandria," London, 1679. (See Introduction, vol. V.)-Apuleius, Lucius, Metamorphoseon seu de Asino Aureo Libri XI, edited by Andrew, bishop of Aleria, Rome, 1469; translated from the Latin by Thomas Tylor, London, 1822; and by Sir G. Head, The Metamorphoses of Apuleius, London, 1851.- Augustan History, Historiae Augustae Scriptores (Ælius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus), Milan, 1475; Venice, 1489; edited by Casarabon, Paris, 1603; by Salmasius, Paris, 1620; by Schrevelius, Leyden, 1671; by Jordan and Eyssenhardt, Berlin, 1863. (See also Dirksen, Paucker and Plew.)

Augustan History is the title given to a series of biographies of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus, ostensibly written by the six authors above mentioned in the time of Diocletian and Constantine. The most recent research tends to show that the collection,

at least, in the form in which we have it, is a compilation of the end of the fourth or beginning of the fifth century and that the authors' names formerly attached to it are entirely fictitious. The authenticity of the official documents contained in it is also questioned. It is, nevertheless, an important, for many facts almost the only, source of our knowledge of imperial Rome.

Augustine, Saint, De Civitate Dei, Paris, 1679-1700: reprint, 1836-1838. Edited by Strange, Cologne, 1850-1851, 2 vols.; by Dombart, Leipsic, 1877.

Cæsar, Caius Julius, Commentarii de bello Gallico; Commentarii de bello civili, Rome, 1440; edited by Jungerman, Frankfort, 1606; by C. E. Moberly, with English notes, 18711872; 1877; 1882 (translated by Edmunds); Cæsar's Commentaries, on the Gallic and Civil Wars, London, 1609 (translated by W. H. McDevitte and W. S. Bohn, London, 1857).

Julius Caesar, who shares with Alexander and Napoleon the honours of unapproachable military genius, was born on July 12th, B.c. 100, or according to Mommsen, in B.C. 102. His merits and demerits as a soldier and statesman have been fully dealt with in volume V. Here note need only be taken of his celebrated writings- the Commentaries—which relate the history of the first seven years of the Gallic War, and the progress of the Civil War up to the Alexandrine, and the main object of which was the justification of the author's course in war and in politics. The opening words of De bello Gallico are often noted as a model of literary perspicuity, and throughout the whole work there is a rigorous exclusion of every expression for the use of which no standard authority could be found. It is the utterance of a man who, knowing precisely what he means to say, says it with directness and lucidity. The Commentaries may indeed be regarded as a kind of high-class classical journalism, written down, as we have reason to assume, from day to day from the dictation

of the chief actor in the events narrated.

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Capitolinus, Julius, see Augustan History. Cassiodorus, Senator Magnus Aurelius, Variarum (Epistolarum) Libri XII; Libri XII De Rebus Gestis Gothorum, Augsburg, 1533; Paris, 1584; Rouen, 1679, 2 vols.

Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus (about 480-575 A.D.), although a scion of a noble Roman family, spent the best part of his long life in the service of the Gothic kings, and filled the most important offices under Theodoric and his successors. In his later years, after retirement to a monastery, he was no less active as a writer and a protector of learning. His most important work, De Rebus Gestis Gothorum, is preserved only in the barbarous version of Jordanes. The Variarum, a collection of letters and official documents, forms the best source of information concerning the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in Italy.

Chronicle of Moissiac (Chronicon Moissiacense), in the Monumenta Germaniæ Historica, Hanover, 1819-1904, in progress.

The Chronicle of Moissiac, which seems to have had its origin in Aquitaine, is of some value for the history of southern Gaul in the early part of the ninth century.

Chronicon Cuspiniani, Basel, 1552.

These annals, an outgrowth of the consular fasti and more recently known as Fasti Vindobonenses or Consularia Italica, are important for their accurate chronological data of the fourth and fifth centuries.

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, Orationes (Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino), edited by Andrew, bishop of Aleria, Rome, 1471; German translation by Klotz, Leipsic, 1835, 3 vols.; English translation by Wm. Guthrie, London, 1806, 2 vols.; and by C. D. Yonge, London, 1851-1852, 4 vols. Cicero's writings, though not primarily historical, furnish valuable material for the historian. Claudian (us), Claudius, Opera, Vincenza, 1482; Vienna, 1510; edited by Palmannus, Antwerp, 1571; by Burmann, Amsterdam, 1760; English translation by A. Hawkins, London, 1817, 2 vols.

Claudian was the last Latin classic poet. He was a native of Alexandria, but came to Rome about the end of the fourth century. He enjoyed the patronage of Stilicho, who granted him wealth and honours, but probably shared his patron's ruin in 408. Claudian wrote numerous panegyrical poems, three historical epics, and many occasional verses. epics are not without value as historical sources, as they follow the facts of history closely.

His

Cluverius (Cluver), Philip, Germania Antiqua, Leyden, 1616.- Cochtaens, Joannes, Vita Theodorici regis Ostrogothorum et Italiæ, annotated by J. Peringskiöld, Stockholm, 1699. Codex Carolinus (Letters from the Popes to Frankish Kings), edited by Philip Jaffé in his Monumenta Carolina, Berlin, 1867.

The Codex Carolinus, Letters from the Popes to the Frankish Kings, collected by the order of Charlemagne, is one of the most important of historical sources.

Codex Gothanus, edited by Waitz, in Monumenta Germaniæ, Historica, Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum, Hanover, 1819, in progress.

Composed probably about 810, and prefixed to a manuscript of Lombard laws now in the Ducal Library at Gotha.

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