heart.] Its proper place in truth is as an introduction to rhetoric. The speaking and reading are all that is necessary to those who merely want a gentleman's acquaintance with a tongue: the critical knowledge is for those who have to write it with exactness. In any case there is no doubt in Locke's mind that those are tormented about grammar to whom it does not at all belong, "I mean children at the age wherein they are generally perplexed with it in grammar schools." § 168, pp. 145, 146.

He can scarcely find words strong enough to express his contempt for Latin in those schools that prepare for ordinary middle-class life. Latin is necessary to a "gentleman"; at least it was so in Locke's time, but the argument of utility, in the vulgar sense of that word, breaks down when we consider its employment as an instrument of education in the schools of the bourgeoisie.

Let the scholar translate Latin into English, but as the mere learning of words is a very unpleasant business let him "join as much real knowledge with it as he can,” beginning still with that which lies most obvious to the senses, such as is the knowledge of minerals, plants, and animals, and particularly timber and fruit trees * * "more especially geography, astronomy, and anatomy." (§ 169.) [Here we see the influence of Milton.] But whatever he is taught let virtue be the chief end.

Spite of all that has been said, a boy if he has to go to school must submit to the usual routine, but by all means try to get him exempt from writing Latin themes and, above all, verses. As to themes, Locke considers it an Egyptian tyranny to ask boys to write themes when they have not, by reason of their age and ignorance, the materials. He suggests their being induced to speak to a subject which they know something about without preparation.

As to verses the school practice is absurd and indefensible. Locke had an aversion to poetry. He says that if a boy

callings and Poetry and

shows a poetic vein it should be stifled and suppressed, if he is not to grow up to a dislike of all other businesses" and to be led into frivolous company. gaming go together. And even if any one desires to cultivate the poetic vein he will do it best by reading the poetscertainly not by writing Latin verses.

Locke further objects to learning parts of classical authors by heart as tending to make a pedant, and yet he commends the learning of beautiful passages, if selected for this reason, that they are beautiful. As to exercising the memory, that is not improved by learning by heart. The learning one class of things by heart does not improve the memory for others. "What the mind is intent upon and careful of that it remembers best" (§ 176); and if we add to this order and method we have done all that can be done. Yet Locke does not mean that there should be no exercise of memory. Useful things and fine sayings might well be learned by heart and frequently called for that they may not be forgotten.

Greek. When a youth is grown up he may acquire the Greek tongue for himself if he desire it, without the aid of a tutor. Greek is for a professed student and is not necessary to the equipment of a gentleman.

Geography. While a child is learning French and Latin he should learn things through these-arithmetic, geometry, geography, chronology and history.

Geography should be begun with the globe; as the leading outlines being dependent entirely on the eye will be learned readily.

Arithmetic. When he has the natural parts of the globe in his memory it may then be time to begin arithmetic, which is the easiest and first sort of abstract reasoning that the mind is accustomed to and of universal application. A man cannot have too much of it.

Along with this, the globe should again be studied, advancing from the terrestrial to the celestial globe. Then

the planetary system should be taught to him; but always begin with what is plain and simple, and settle that well in the pupils' heads before proceeding further. "Give first one simple idea and see that they take it right and perfectly comprehend it, before you go further, and then add some other simple idea which lies next in your way to what you aim at, and so proceeding by gentle and insensible steps children, without confusion and amazement, will have their understandings opened and their thoughts extended farther than could have been expected." (§ 181.)'

Geometry. The six books of Euclid should be learned in the ordinary school course: but it is in the essay on the Conduct of the Human Understanding, not here, that we find Locke's estimate of mathematics in education. there says (Fowler's edition, section VII. p. 23):—

He

"I have mentioned mathematics as a way to settle in the mind a habit of reasoning closely and in train; not that I think it necessary that all men should be deep mathematicians, but that, having got the way of reasoning, which that study necessarily brings the mind to, they might be able to transfer it to other parts of knowledge, as they shall have occasion. For, in all sorts of reasoning every single argument should be managed as a mathematical demonstration; the connexion and dependence of ideas should be followed till the mind is brought to the source on which it bottoms, and observes the coherence all along; though in proofs of probability one such train is not enough to settle the judgment, as in demonstrative knowledge."

Chronology. A boy should have a general knowledge of the great dates and epochs as preparatory, along with geography, to the proper understanding of history.

History. This delights the young, and they should read history in Latin, e.g. Eutropius, Justin and Curtius, and thus prepare themselves for the more difficult authors. They need not be troubled as to the period at which they begin, because 1 The teaching of Locke's philosophy is to be seen in this.

their chronology will keep them right. As boys grow up, history is an important subject as "the great mistress of prudence and civil knowledge."

Ethics. This having been all along taught by practice rather than by rule, nothing more is needed than what the Bible, and, later, Tully's Offices afford. Yet it is worthy of notice here that while Locke relies mainly on the formation of moral habits, he yet considers that the study of morality as maxims and precepts-in other words, instruction in the substance of morality—should enter into school-work.

Civil Law. This should be studied in Puffendorf and Grotius. There he will be instructed in the natural rights of men and in the foundations of Civil Society. A virtuous young man who knows Latin and the Civil Law and writes a good hand, may be turned out into the world with the certainty that he will "find employment and esteem everywhere." Civil law and history are in Locke's opinion "studies which a gentleman should constantly dwell upon and never have done with."

Law (Municipal). A gentleman should not be ignorant of the law of his own country by studying the ancient books of the Common Law, and “taking a view of our English constitution and Government." Then in connexion with this he should read the history of his own country.

Rhetoric and Logic. These are not to be learned from books of rhetoric and logic, but from the study of good models and by practice.

Style. As to style, youth should be trained to write, being practised first in narrative and then in epistolary composition. A gentleman should labour to get facility, clearness, and elegance, in expressing himself in his own tongue; and "to this purpose he should be daily exercised in it." Locke is bitterly satirical on the neglect of English composition in schools. "To mind what English his pupil speaks or writes is below the dignity of one bred up amongst Latin and Greek."

Natural Philosophy. Locke thinks that the works of nature are contrived by a wisdom and speak by ways too far surpassing our faculties to discover or capacities to conceive, for us ever to be able to reduce them into a science!"

There are two parts of Natural Science-that which has to do with Spirit and that which has to do with Body. The study of Spirit or Spirits ought to precede that of Body, not as a science but as an enlargement of mind "towards a fuller comprehension of the intellectual world to which we are led both by Reason and Revelation" (§ 190). He thinks the best way of doing this would be the perusal of Bible history, in a book written for the young. This is all the more necessary "because matter being a thing that all our senses are constantly conversant with, it is so apt to possess the mind and exclude all other beings but matter, that prejudice grounded on such principles often leaves no room for the admittance of spirits or the allowing any such thing as immaterial beings in rerum natura; when yet it is evident that by mere matter and motion none of the great phenomena of nature can be resolved: to instance but that common one of gravity, which I think impossible to be explained by any natural operation of matter or any other law of motion but the positive will of a superior Being so ordering it." ($192.)' The world, he says, is full of systems of Natural Philosophy, but as there is no true or certain science I conclude that none of them are to be read, though a gentleman may look into some of them to fit himself for conversation. Yet Locke adds laudation of the "incomparable Mr Newton's" application of Mathematics to Natural Philosophy.

Locke evidently means that too much occupation with the things of sense has a tendency to extrude moral and spiritual ideas from the mind of youth. This is much better put in

1 Locke tries to explain the Noachian Deluge by the alteration of the centre of the earth's gravity by the will of God.