There are 1,150 Turkish post-offices in the Turkish Empire -Europe and Asia.

UNITED STATES.-In 1809, Thomas Leiper of Philadelphia had constructed and operated what is believed to have been the first railroad in the United States. It was used for the transportation of stone from his quarriers on Crum Creek to his landing on Ridley Creek, a distance of about one mile. The Quincy railroad, which is often quoted as the first railroad in America, was not completed and operated until 1827. This was four miles long, and ran from a granite quarry to the port of Neponset, in Massachusetts. Another and more extensive one, nine miles in length, was built in the same year from the coal-mines at Mauch Chunk, in Pennsylvania, to the Lehigh River. The first two of these roads were operated by horse-power, and the last by means of inclined planes with stationary engines and gravity (Icon. Ency., Vol. V. p. 175). The extent of railways in operation in 1830 was twenty-three miles; it rose to 2,818 miles in 1840; to 9,021 miles in 1350; to 30,635 miles in 1860; to 53,399 miles in 1879; to 84,393 miles in 1880; to 91,147 miles in 1881; and to 161,397 miles in 1890; 5,751 miles having been constructed during 1889. The railways are divided as follows among the great groups of States, the statistics overlapping to some extent: New England States, 6,733 miles; Middle Atlantic, 19,739 miles; Central Northern, 35,985 miles; South Atlantic, 16,024 miles; Gulf and Mississippi Valley, 12,644 miles; South Western, 32,018 miles; North-Western, 26,529 miles; Pacific, 11,580 miles.

The total capital invested in railways in 1889 was 9,680,633,189 dollars, the gross yearly earnings 1,003,736,596 dollars, and the net earnings 322,284,986 dollars. In the fifty-six principal cities of the United States in 1888-89 there were altogether 3,151 miles of street railway, 2,351 miles being worked by animal power, 260 miles by electricity, 256 miles by cable, and 283 miles by steam.

URAGUAY, in 1890, had about 418 miles of railway open to traffic, and about 108 miles in process of construction.

VENEZUELA in 1889, had in operation 183 miles of railway; under construction 216; and under consideration 1,240.

VICTORIA, whose railways all belong to the state, had completed at the end of June, 1889, 2,199 miles of railway. Besides these, 684 miles were in course of construction. By Dec. 31, 1889, the extent was increased to 2,341 miles.

The total cost of the lines open to June 30, 1889, was 29,125,2801. of which all but about 2,936,0001. was derived from loans-being about an average of 13,2451. per miles for the miles open. The gross receipt in the year 1888-89 amounted to 1,110,1407.; and the expenditure to 1,945,8371., or 62:56 per cent. of the receipts; which latter proportion, however, was higher than usual. The profit on working was thus 1,164,3037., being equivalent to 4'18 per cent. of the mean capital cost, or 467 per cent. of the borrowed capital, which bears interest at the average rate of 414 per cent. The number of passengers conveyed in the year 1888-89 was sixty-nine millions, and the weight of goods and livestock carried was 4,160,000 tons. The train mileage in 1888-89 was 10,680,743 miles. The proportions of receipts from passenger and goods traffic to the total receipts were 54 and 46 per cent. respectively.

state, which also is proprietor of 90 miles in neighboring counties.

RECAPITULATION.-The above summaries in respect of railway mileage show a grand total on Jan. 1, 1891, of 361,318 miles.

RAILWAY STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES.-The following figures, compiled chiefly from tables furnished by "Poor's Manual of Railroads in the United States," give additional statistical totals, the latest accredited and announced to Jan. 1, 1891. They are for the year 1889, except the first item, which is from the report of 1890:

WÜRTEMBERG in June, 1889, had 907 miles of railway, all but 10 miles under the control of the

1889

$2.395,647.293 79.009 2,708,673,375 82,146 3,177,375,179 92.971 3,511,035,824 104,971 3,708,060,583 110,414 3,762.616,686 115.672 3.817,697.832 123,320 3,999,508,508 125,185 4,191,562.029 137.028 4.438.411.342 145,341 4,495,099,318 152.689

$2.319.489,172

2,530,874,943

2.878.423.606

3.235,543,323

3,500,879,914

3,669,115,772

3,765,727,066 3.882.966.330 4,186,943.116 4,624,035,023 4.828,365,771

WESTERN AUSTRALIA had on Jan. 1, 1890, 500 miles of railway open to traffic; 12 miles under construction, and 290 partly under construction.

CONDENSED RAILWAY FACTS, UNITED STATES.There are nearly one million railway employés now (1891) in the United States.

The cost of a high class eight-wheel passenger locomotive is about $8,500.

The cost of a palace sleeping car is $15,000, or if "vestibuled," $17,000.

The average cost of constructing a mile of railroad in the United States at the present time is about $30,000.

The average daily earning of an American locomotive is about $100.

The "consolidation" locomotive weighs 50 tons and is able to draw on a level over 2,400 tons.

The longest mileage operated by a single system is that of the Union Pacific-10,928 miles.

The highest railroad in the United States is the Colorado Midland, at the Continental Divide-11,530 feet above sea level.

The longest American railroad tunnel is the Hoosac tunnel on the Fitchburg Railroad-four and three quarter miles.

There are 208,749 railroad bridges in the United States, spanning 3,213 miles.

The longest railroad bridge span in the United States is the Cantilever span in the Poughkeepsie (N. Y.) bridge over the Hudson River-548 feet.

The highest railroad bridge in the United States is the Kinzua viaduct on the Erie road-305 feet high.

The Manhattan Elevated Railroad, of New York. carried the largest number of passengers of any American road in 1890-500,000 per day, or 188,203,877 yearly.

RAILWAY, THE PROPOSED INTER-CONTINENTAL. The International American Conference, which sat at Washington in 1889 and 1890, after mature consideration of a plan for connecting the railway systems of North, Central and South America, submitted, in its report to the President of the United States, the following recommendations:

First. That a railroad connecting all or a majority of the nations represented in this conference will contribute greatly to the development of cordial relations between said nations and the growth af their material interests.

Second. That the best method of facilitating its execution is the appointment of an international commission of engineers, to ascertain the possible routes, to determine their true length, to estimate the cost of each, and to compare their respective advantages.

Third. That the said commission should consist of a body of engineers of whom each nation should appoint three, and which should have authority to divide into subcommissions and appoint as many other engineers and employes as may be considered necessary for the more rapid execution of the work.

Fourth. That each of the governments accepting may ap point, at its own expense, commissioners or engineers to serve as auxiliaries to the subcommisions charged with the sectional surveys of the line.

Fifth. That the railroad, in so far as the common interests will permit, should connect the principal cities lying in the vicinity of its route.

Sixth. That if the general direction of the line cannot be altered without great inconvenience, for the purpose mentioned in the preceding article, branch lines should be sureyed to connect those cities with the main line.

Seventh. That for the purpose of reducing the cost of the enterprise the existing railways should be utalized as far as is practicable and compatible with the route and conditions of the continental railroad.

Eighth. That in case the results of the survey demonstratethe practicability and advisability of the railroad, proposals for the construction either of the whole line or of sections thereof should be solicited.

Ninth. That the construction, management, and operation of the line should be at the expense of the concessionaires, or of the person to whom they sublet the work or transfer their rights, with all due formalities, the consent of the respectivegovernments being first obtained.

Tenth. That all materials necessary for the construction. and operation of the railroad should be exempt from import duties, subject to such regulations as may be necessary to prevent the abuse of this privilege.

Eleventh. That all personal and real property of the railroad employed in it its construction and operation should be exempt from all taxation, either national, provincial (State) or municipal.

Twelfth. That the execution of a work of such magnitude deserves to be further encouraged by subsidies, grants of land, or guarantees of a minimum of interest.

Thirteenth. That the salaries of the commission, as well as the expense incident to the preliminary and final surveys, should be assumed by all the nations accepting, in proportion to population according to the latest official census, or, in the absence of a census, by agreement between their several gov

ernments.

Fourteenth. That the railroad should be declared forever neutral for the purpose of securing freedom of traffic.

Fifteenth. That the approval of the surveys, the terms of the proposals, the protection of the concessionaires, the inspection of the work, the legislation affecting it, the neu trality of the road and the free passage of merchandise in transit should be (in the event contemplated by article eight) the subject of special agreement between all the nations interested.

Sixteenth. That as soon as the Government of the United States shall receive notice of the acceptance of these recommendations by the other governments, it shall invite them to appoint the commission of engineers referred to in the second article, in order that it may meet in the city of Washington, at the earliest possible date.

In transmitting this report to the President, the secretary of state, under date of May 12, 1891, made the following observations:

Under the generous and progressive policy of President. Diaz the railways of Mexico have been extended southward as well as northward and toward the two oceans. The development of the Argentine system has been equally rapid. Lines of track now reach from Buenos Ayres to the northern cities of that Republic, and nearly to the Bolivian boundary. Chili has a profitable system of railroads from the mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and the completion of the tunnel that is now being pierced through the Cordilleras will bring Valparaíso within two days' travel of BuenosAyres. In the other republics similar enterprise has been shown. Each has its local lines of railway, and to connect. them all and furnish the people of the Southern Continent the means of convenient and comfortable intercourse with their neighbors north of the Isthmus is am undertaking worthy the encouragement and co-operation of this Government. In no other way could the Government and people of the United States contribute so much to the development and prosperity of our sister Republic and at. the same time to the expansion of our commerce.

It is proposed that a survey to ascertain the best and most. economical routes be made under the direction of an international commission, and that the expense be shared by the several nations of the hemisphere in proportion to their respective populations. The share of the United States is estimated to be $65,000, and I would respectfully suggest the propriety of securing from Congress an appropriation for that purpose. Three commissioners will be required to represent the United States upon the international board, and authority should be asked for the detail of officers of the army and navy to serve as engineers in conducting the survey..

In accordance with the above, the secretary of state issued invitations to the other republics of America to appoint members of a board of commissioners to superintend the survey of the InterContinental trunk line of railway. Notices of appointments by several of these states have been received. On the part of the United States, the President has appointed Alfred J. Cassatt, of Pennsylvania, George Mortimer Pullman, of Chicago, Ill., and Henry G. Davis, of West Virginia, Com

missioners.

An unofficial estimate of the distance which would be covered by a trunk line between the cities of New York and Buenos Ayres is 9,000 miles.

RAILROAD SPEED. The fastest time on record made for long distances by railway line in the world up to Sept. 22, 1891, was made by the New York Central Railway between New York City and Buffalo, Sept. 14, 1861. The distance run was 4361⁄2 miles; the time exclusive of the stops was 426 minutes; including stops 4391⁄2 minutes. The average speed for the whole distance was, exclusive of stops, 61,44 miles per hour; inclusive of stops, 59,52 miles per hour. The details of the run were as follows:

The run of 143 miles from New York to Albany, which was without a stop, was made in 141 minutes. At Albany three minutes and twenty-eight seconds were consumed in changing locomotives. The run from Albany to Syracuse, 148 miles, also without a stop, was covered in 146 minutes. At Syracuse it took only two and one-half minutes to change locomotives, and the train set out over the 150 mile stretch to East Buffalo. One hundred and fifty minutes would have been a fine trip without any stops, but 150 miles in 148 minutes, with a stop of seven minutes and fifty seconds thrown in for cooling a hot journal of the locomotive, is a phenomenal run. The actual running time for the 150 miles was 140 minutes and ten seconds. This record means that a continuous speed of 59.52

miles an hour was maintained for the entire distance from New York to Buffalo, making no allowance for stops or slow-downs in order to scoop water from the track tanks. Allowing for three minutes and twenty-eight seconds to change engines at Albany, two and a half minutes for the same at Syracuse, and seven minutes and fifty seconds for repairing the hot journal at Fairport, or thirteen minutes and forty-eight seconds in all, the actual running time for the 436 miles was 426 minutes, or 61.44 miles an hour for the entire distance.

The train consisted of three heavy cars equal to the weight of five standard coaches. The passengers, consisting mainly of the officers of the road, occupied a drawing-room car weighing 93,400 pounds, a buffet drawing-room car weighing 77,800 pounds, the vice-president's private car weighing 88,400 pounds, a total of 259,600 pounds. The engine weighed 60 tons and the tender loaded 40 tons, and one ordinary Central coach weighing 27 tons, making the total weight of the train aside from the officers and passengers, 257 tons. The dimensions of the engine are shown in the above diagram.

OTHER NOTABLE LONG DISTANCE RECORDS.-A London and Northwestern train, in August 1888, made a trip from London to Edinburgh, 400 miles, in seven hours and fifty-two minutes, which is a gross speed of 50.9 miles an hour. It made three stops, and the actual running time was seven hours and thirteen minutes, or 55.4 miles an hour. There were four cars, and the engine, tender and cars weighed less than 130 tons.

A West Shore train, in July, 1885, soon after the road was opened, made a run from East Buffalo to Weehawken, 422.6 miles, in nine hours and thirty-three minutes at a speed of forty-five miles

an hour, not counting stops. Allowing for twelve stops the time was seven hours and thirteen minutes, giving a speed of fifty-one miles an hour. The weight of the train, with four cars, was 155 tons. At the time this was considered a phenomenal run, and at points on the Buffalo division it was said that the people along the way could make out only a shadow as the train flew past.

A newspaper train on the New York Central in May, 1886, made a fast trip from New York to Buffalo, but it developed a gross speed of only 45.3 miles an hour, without allowing for stops.

The Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania have made very fast special runs, but none of them have come up to the run of the Scotch express for a distance of over 400 miles. The Baltimore & Ohio, however, in conjunction with the Reading & Jersey Central, has the fastest scheduled train in the world for a distance of over 200 miles. The Royal Blue Limited, between Jersey City and Washington, makes the run at an average actual speed of 52.8 miles an hour, and does it every day. The Scotch express between London and Edinburgh follows closely with a speed of 51.6 miles an

hour.

Early in September, 1891, in a joint effort with Canadian railways to make a quick transit for the mails between Japan and England via Vancouver on the northwest coast, a run was made most of the distance from Niagara River to New York, at the rate of a mile a minute. The mails from Yokohoma by that train in conjunction with the Canadian Pacific, covered the whole distance from Yokohoma to New York City in a little less than fourteen days. The distance of 2,603 miles was covered by the Canadian Pacific in 77 hours and 20 minutes, an average of over 331⁄2 miles per hour.

Some of the fast regular trains in the United States to this date are reported as follows:

The fastest regular trains in the United States are believed to be those running between Washington, D. C., and Baltimore, Maryland, on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 40 miles in 45 minutes, a speed of 53.33 miles an hour. The run from Washington to New York, 225.3 miles, is made in 5 hours. Deducting 12 minutes for the Jersey City ferry and 10 minutes for the Canton ferry, the rate of speed is 48.6 miles per hour. The 'Congressional Limited,' on the Pennsylvania Railroad, also makes the run in 5 hours, but the distance is 224.5 miles.

The shortest time between New York and Washington and the reverse was made March 10, 1890, over the Pennsylvania Railroad by the Madison Square Theater Company, which rode from New York to Washington in the morning, played in the latter city in the afternoon, and returned to New York to open at the Madison Square Theatre at the regular hour in the evening. The time of the run was 4 hours and 18 minutes being the same each way. The train consisted of a locomotive and 3 cars, and carried 62 persons.

SPEED OF THE ELECTRIC MOTORS.-The first serious efforts ever made to at once double railway speed by the use of electric motors are described by O. T. Crosby in a paper read before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers early in 1891. They were made for the Electro-Automatic Railroad Company of Baltimore, Md., which was organized about four years ago by David G. Weems, who, although not an engineer, believed that the electric motor would give very high speed for the transportation of parcels. He first contemplated having an entirely automatic service from city to city in small cars, and for the purpose of demon

stration a circular track nearly two miles in circumference was laid not long ago at Laurel, Md., with a gauge of twenty-eight inches. An upper rail attached to the lower side of a stringer carried by the cross-pieces of a frame-work served as an electric conductor, and also, in connection with upward-pressing wheels, as a guide, but the latter function was not successfully performed, the lateral oscillation of the car on so slight a track being too great. The locomotive was very simple. In the original design three axles carried 28-inch wheels, and on them was a steel box 16 inches in length, 24 inches in height, and 30 inches in width. A slight vertical play of the box was provided for by springs, but, horizontally, the three axles were in rigid connection. The motive power was an electric motor on each axle. Early experiments showed that a given speed could be attained with less current if two motors were used instead of three, and the middle axle was removed. The motors could do 20 horse-power of work each at a normal speed of 3,000 revolutions a minute. With three motors in operation the speed corresponded to a car speed of 250 miles an hour, but on the slight track, with a car weighing three tons, that rate of speed was not attained, of course. The head and tail of the car were pyramidal, to meet atmospheric resistance. Another car, similar in shape, was made to be drawn by the motor car. The motors were at first connected in multiple across a 500-volt current, but later the connection was changed and they were placed in series. To supply the current, contact was made by copper brushes set against the upper rail. The return current was through the wheels and rails. The station was inside the circle, about 200 feet from the track. In the usual course of a run five or six speed observers were stationed on the circle at known distances apart. A current of from twenty to forty ampères usually started the car. When the car had attained a speed of 75 to 100 miles an hour the line potential was about 450 volts. The time limitation of a run was invariably caused by the failure of the track to serve its purpose. On three occasions the car left the track-once at 45 miles an hour, once at 80 miles, and the last time at 115 miles. On the two former occasions the derailment was to the inside of the circle, the superelevation being about four inches. "Could the experiments," Mr. Crosby reported, he having, as superintendent of the Sprague Electric Railway and Motor Company conducted the experiments, "have been made on a roadbed and track deemed even second class according to steam railway standards of rail weight, etc., there can be no question that, without any other change, the car could have attained for several hours a speed of 120 miles an hour. Indeed, I know of no time limitation that would have arisen save that from a limited oil supply. The speed attained in the first roundthat is, the first 9,240 feet-varied from 30 to 75 miles an hour. The rate of acceleration from point to point in going round the circle was irregular and due to grades, which, going in the direction usually followed, varied from 2 to 2.5 per cent. The fact that the track, which was always bad, went rapidly from bad to worse during each run, made it difficult to analyze the records with a view to determining the true coefficient of traction. The coefficient for such a track, even in its best condition, would be greater than that for a track for actual service."

In a run with a flat-headed car the first round was at the rate of 28 miles per hour; second round, 37.4 miles. In another run the rates of speed were: First round, 24.7 miles; second, 42; third, 42. In a

run with a pyramidal-headed car the rates were: First round, 26.2 miles; second, 52.4; third, fourth, fifth and sixth, 41.8 miles each. In another run with a pyramidal-headed car the rates were: First round, 23.5; second, 70. The highest speed attained in that run was 90 to 95 miles an hour. The car was derailed. In the last run, with a wedge-headed car, average speed was maintained at 100 miles an hour. The highest speed attained was 110 to 120 miles, but the car was derailed at the maximum speed, which could not be absolutely determined because the car left the track at some distance from the last two observers. It was clear, however, that the final speed was between 110 and 112 miles an hour. A length of 1,000 feet of the track was injured, about 300 feet of the framework wrecked, and the car landed about thirty feet from the track, having finally jumped the guard rails while going over a fill four or five feet high. Nothing more could be done without rebuilding, and it was suggested that the time was ripe for plans for carrying passengers as well as parcels. That meant an increase in the size of cars and a change from an attempt at automatic control to control by human intelligence on the locomotive. For purposes of demonstration Mr. Crosby proposed that the company should build a track four miles in circumference and run on it a train of two or three cars drawn by one locomotive. The calcu- ' lations were for a speed of 150 miles an hour on a level, the cross-section of a car to be four by five feet, the standard guage, the best possible track, an electro-motive force as high as the art of insulation will permit, all cars to be connected and to present a continuous exterior, a locomotive of about 600 horse-power, weighing about eighteen tons, and steel cars weighing five tons each, with carrying capacity of about five tons. The power required for the locomotive and three loaded cars would be for 150 miles an hour 660 horse-power, and for 120 miles 528 horse-power, provided by two motors connected in arc on a 1,500-volt current. For the retardation of a mass of about forty tons running at 150 miles an hour it was calculated that a brake pressure of about 5,000 pounds should be applied to each wheel by magnetic brakes. For the mechanical construction of the locomotive two plans were contemplated. One has a twelve-foot rigid wheel base and no pilot wheels; the other has a seven-foot wheel base for the drivers and a pony axle in front, free to move laterally over a certain distance, dragging the drivers in the same direction. In the first design the operator is to sit between the two motors, where also are to be placed the controlling devices. In the second design the operator should be placed over the pony axle, the devices being chiefly in the cylindrical or parabolic head. The conductors are to be in an inverted wooden trough attached to posts placed at intervals of twelve feet on each side of the track and a little more than five feet above the ground. The calculations for safe speed on curves were 71 miles an hour for 1,000 feet radius up to 198 miles for 8,000 feet. To demonstrate all that Mr. Crosby has outlined would cost about $300,000. Taking the commercial aspects into account, the cost of a line of 1,000 miles, as from New York to Chicago, was estimated to be about $66,000 a mile. The operating expenses and the charges for maintenance of way were estimated to be about $400 for a train running on a schedule of 125 miles an hour. The receipts for an average train of two cars having each a capacity of 10,000 pounds freight, such as express or mail matter, or fifteen passengers, with an average train load of 15,000 pounds, or twenty passengers, were estimated to be about $500. It is be

lieved that a 500-mile line connecting Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington would be more profitable than the 1,000 mile line. In reviewing the plans, Prof. Henry A. Rowland and Dr. Louis Duncan, of Johns Hopkins University, say: "We believe from the data obtained that the values are not too low, and that the horsepower which Mr. Crosby calculates is not less than the amount required. The possibility of a train being derailed by an obstruction on the track increases with the speed. At speeds up to ninety miles, however, there seems no increase in the number of derailments. In the case in question, the center of gravity of the cars is very low, and it would be difficult to derail them on straight parts of the track. The radius of the curves should of course be great, but not so great as would be required for an ordinary train going at these high speeds. The question of safety is, however, almost wholly a question of track construction. Considering the form of the proposed train, its comparative. ly light weight making a less demand on the track, it is certain that, with a carefully constructed road, it could attain with safety speeds which would be impossible with trains constructed as at present. As these latter have several times made 86 miles, and often 80 miles on short distances, an hour, it would seem that 120 miles or even more per hour, with an electric car, would not be outside the limits of safety.

RAINES, JOHN, member of Congress, born at Canandaigua, New York, May 6, 1840. He graduated from the Albany Law School in 1861; served in the armies of the Potomac and North Carolina as captain-1861-63; was a member of the assembly of the State of New York in 1881, '82, and '85; was State senator in 1886, '87, '88, and '89; is president of the board of education of Canandaigua; was elected to Congress in 1889; and reëlected for the term ending 1893.

RAIN-PRINTS, small pits observed on the surfaces of some argillaceous rocks, and believed to be the impressions of rain-drops.

RAINY LAKE, a lake which forms a portion of the boundary-line between British North America and the United States. It is situated 160 miles west of Lake Superior, is 1,160 feet above sea-level, and is about thirty-five miles long, and five miles in average breadth. Its surplus waters are carried off to the Lake of the Woods, in a west-northwest direction, by the Rainy River, which is about 100 miles in length, and the banks of which are covered with pine-forests.

RAISINEE, a sweetmeat, much esteemed in France, made by boiling new wine, and skimming until only half the quantity of wine remains; after which it is strained; apples, pared and cut into quarters, are added to it, and it is allowed to simmer gently, till the apples are thoroughly mixed with the wine, when it has a very pleasant sweetish acid taste. Cider may be used instead of wine.

RAKOCZY MARSCH, a simple but grand military air by an unknown composer, said to have been the favorite march of Francis Rakoczy II. of Transylvania, and at all events much played in his army. The Magyar Hungarians adopted it as their national march, and in 1848 and 1849, it has been alleged to have had the same inspirating effect on the revolutionary troops of Hungary as the Marseillaise on the French. Like the Marseillaise in France, it has been placed under the ban of the Austrian government at various periods of political excitement. In 1848, several attempts were made by Hungarian poets to set it to appropriate

verses.

RAKSHAS, or RAKSHASA, in Hindu mythology, the name of a class of evil spirits or demons, who are sometimes imagined as attendants on Kuvera, the god of riches, the guardians of his treasures, but more frequently as mischievous, cruel and hideous monsters, haunting cemeteries, devouring human beings, and ever ready to oppose the gods and to disturb pious people.

RALE, SÉBASTIEN, a French missionary in Canada, born in 1658, killed by the English in 1724. He began his labors among the Abenakis in 1689. RALEIGH, a city of North Carolina. Population in 1890, 12,798. See Britannica, Vol. XX, p. 261.

RALSTON, WILLIAM R. SHEDDEN (1828-1889), an English writer on Russian literature. He was long assistant librarian in the British Museum, and wrote valuable works on Russian fables, songs, folk-lore, and early history.

RAMBAUD, ALFRED NICOLAS, a French historian, born at Besançon in 1842. After receiving the degree of LL. D., he was appointed professor of history at Caen in 1871; at Nancy in 1875, and at Paris in 1882. His chief works are La Domination francaise en allemagne, 1793–1804; L'Allemagne sous Napolen I, 1804-11; La Russie epique (1876), and Histoire de Russie (1878). The last two are excellent presentations of Russian thought and history.

RAMBLA, a small town of Spain, in the modern province of Cordova, twenty-three miles south of the city of that name, on a hill in a district which produces abundantly grain, wine and oil. Some manufactures of coarse pottery, especially of porous water-coolers, are carried on. Population, 6,500.

RAMIE, CHINA GRASS, a fibre plant of growing importance because well suited to our climate from New Jersey to the Gulf of Mexico, and the most prolific of our textile plants. It grows 41⁄2 feet high, and yields a fibre of the fineness, gloss, and almost the strength of silk. It was used in China before the Christian era. It is now extensively raised in America.

RAMMELSBERG, one of the Harz mountains, rather less than 2,200 feet high, and celebrated for its mines, which yield gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, sulphur, vitriol, and alum. They have been worked, according to tradition, from the year 968; and their possession was for ages a source of strife between the inhabitants of Goslar and the Dukes of Brunswick.

RAMNAD, a town of British India, one hundred and twenty-five miles northeast from Cape Comorin, and five or six miles from the shore of Palk's Bay. In the center of the fort is the palace or residence of the zemindar, one of the greatest of his class in the south of India, his extensive posessions containing more than 2,000 villages, and nearly 300,000 inhabitants. Population about 13,000, of whom 6,000 dwell within the fort.

RAMNEGHAR, or RAMNUGGUR (Town of God), a large town of the Punjab, beautifully situated in an extensive plain on the left bank of the Chenab, sixty-five miles north-northwest of Lahore. The town is surrounded by walls, and contains eight well supplied bazaars. Population stated at 11,000. RAMNEGHAR, or RAMNUGGUR, a town of British India, in the district of Benares, four miles south of the city of that name, on the right bank of the Ganges. Its fort, the residence of the rajah, rises from the banks of the sacred stream by a number of fine ghats or flights of stairs. Population, 9,490.

RAMSAY, ANDREW CROMBIE, a Scotch geologist, born at Glasgow in 1814. He became a director of the geological survey of Great Britain in 1845; director-general in 1872; has held many important