the royal crown and cipher, executed in Italy In it is a bastard Louis Quatorze, with all its char- FURRUCKABAD, a district of British In- circulated largely throughout the N. W. provinces. It was abolished in 1824. FÜRST, JULIUS, a German orientalist of Jewish race, born in Zerkowa, in the duchy of Posen, May 12, 1805, studied at Posen and Breslau, and in 1833 became teacher (Docent) of the oriental languages. His historical, grammatical, and lexicographical works are numerous and valuable; the principal of them are a "System of the Aramaic Idioms" (1835); Concordantia Librorum Sacrorum V. T. Hebraicæ et Chaldaica (Leipsic, 1837 et seq.); "Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary for Schools" (1842); "Religious Philosophy of the Jews in the Middle Ages" (1845); "History of the Jews in Asia" (1849 et seq.); Bibliotheca Judaica (3 vols., 1849–'53); “Manual Dictionary of the Hebrew and Chaldee Languages" (1851 et seq.). From 1840 to 1851 he edited the "Orient." FÜRTH, a town of Bavaria, in the province of Middle Franconia, situated at the confluence of the Rednitz and Pregnitz rivers, 44 m. by rail from Nuremberg; pop. 16,000. This railway, opened in 1835, was the first in Germany, and now extends from Frankfort to Munich. About 3,000 of the population are Jews, who have a high or Talinud school, 3 minor schools, several synagogues, 2 printing houses, a religious and civil court of justice, a hospital, and an institution for orphans and for the employment of their poor. FUSE, SAFETY, a tubular cord of cotton, rendered slowly combustible for communicating fire to the powder in blasting. The cavity in the centre of the cord is filled with some slowburning powder, and the cord is then wound with tarred twine, and covered outside with a coating of tar. It is thus protected from moist ure, and is made sufficiently firm and hard not to be cut by the fragments used in tamping. It is either "double" or "single," the former being protected with an extra quantity of tarred covering, so that it can be used for exploding the cartridges used in wet holes. The latter, being only about half the price, is commonly used in dry blasting. It burns about 3 feet in a minute. A method has been patented of introducing a combustible thread through the centre of the cord in the powder, with the view of providing another means of communicating the fire in case the powder is interrupted or the cotton of the tube does not continue to burn. For its use, see BLASTING. FUSEL OIL, a liquid colorless when pure, of offensive smell and burning taste, obtained by continuing the distillation of the fermented infusions used for the preparation of ardent spirits after the alcoholic portion has been drawn off. In this condition, however, it is mixed with water, from which it should be separated by a second distillation, the water coming over first. As this brings with it a portion of oil, it is to be set aside for the latter to separate, and form a layer on the surface. Ardent spirits contain fusel oil, particularly if the distillation has been pushed far. It is detected by redistilling whis key, especially that obtained from potatoes, a milky fluid coming over at the last, from which the oil separates by standing; or by redistillation, water first coming over, and then the oil at its boiling point of 269°. Thus obtained, it is usually of a pale yellow, of specific gravity 0.818; at 4° below zero it congeals in crystalline leaves. It inflames only when heated to 130°. It unites with alcohol in all proportions, but has little affinity for water. The resins, fats, camphor, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., are dissolved by it. Upon the animal system it acts as an irritant poison; its vapor produces nausea, headache, and giddiness. Its composition is represented by the formula C10 H12 O2; or, on the supposition of its being a hydrated oxide of amyle, its formula is C10 H11 O, HO. Fusel oil is used to some extent for burning in lamps, and for dissolving copal and other resins for varnishes, &c. Its presence is highly injurious to liquors, and when in sufficient quantity to be perceptible to the smell and taste, indicates bad rectification or the use of damaged grain. It may be detected by agitating the liquor with water, and leaving it to stand for the oil to rise and appear at the surface. It is separated in rectifying by the introduction of some soft wood charcoal, as pine or willow. Olive oil also may be added, and the mixture being well shaken the oils will afterward collect together at the surface, when they may be decanted and the spirits be again distilled. FUSELI, HENRY, a painter and writer on art, born in Zürich, Switzerland, Feb. 7, 1741, died in London, April 16, 1825. His father was John Casper Füssli, also a painter. Having been destined for the church, he received a good classical education at his native town, and in 1761 took orders; but his predilection for his father's art had led him from childhood to cultivate it in secret, notwithstanding the parental prohibition. A pamphlet written by himself and Lavater, who was his schoolfellow, in which a public functionary was severely handled, was the cause of his leaving Zürich, and after spending some time in Vienna and Berlin he went to England, where for a time he supported himself by literary labors. Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he showed some of his drawings, advised him to devote himself to art, and he accordingly spent 8 years in Italy among the works of the old masters. Here he changed his name to its Italian form, which he ever after retained. Returning to England in 1778, he executed a number of pictures for Alderman Boydell's celebrated "Shakespeare Gallery." In 1790 he was elected an academician, and in 1799 he exhibited a series of 47 designs on a large scale from Milton's works. In the same year he became professor of painting in the academy. Among his literary labors was a translation of his friend Lavater's "Aphorisms on Man." He wrote in a clear and vigorous style, and his lectures before the royal academy were considered among the best specimens of art criticism in English literature. As a painter Fuseli possessed great invention, and his mind was capable of the most daring conceptions; but his imagination was too active for the control of his judgment, and the unnatural contortions and superfluous energy of his figures show that he had neither a true idea of form nor a just appreciation of the genius of Michel Angelo, of whom he affected to be an imitator. FUSIBILITY, FUSION. Bodies are said to be in fusion when, by absorption of latent heat, they pass from a solid to a liquid state. The property of fusibility at some temperature is probably possessed by all bodies, but some are so altered by chemical changes among their own elements or by the action of external bodies in contact, that they cease to retain their individual characteristics before their melting point is reached. Although it seems that in some crystalline organic compounds, and also in some of the fats, the fusing point varies after the body has been once melted, it is generally the case that the fusion takes place at a constant temperature for the same body, that this point is ascertained for many, and is given with each as one of the distinctive qualities. Carbon, however, resists this determination, and the assertions of its fusibility made by some experimenters are not generally admitted as establishing the fact. The range of the fusing point of bodies is very great, some existing in the solid state only far below the ordinary temperatures, while others require the most intense artificial heat to cause them to assume the liquid form. This is exhibited in the following table, which comprises many of the bodies thus arranged by Pouillet: Degrees 2,912 1,652 twill of 4 or 5 leaves, of close and stout texture. Velveteen differs from velvet only in the material, which is cotton, while that of velvet is silk. Some fustians also are made in the same manner as satin. Moleskins are smooth fustians shorn before dyeing; beaverteens are the same material, but shorn after dyeing. Cantoon is a fustian with a fine cord visible upon the one side, and a satiny surface of yarns running at right angles to the cords upon the other side. The colors of these goods are usually leaden, olive, or dark. FUSTIC, the dye wood of the morus tinctoria, a tree which grows to a great height in Brazil and the West India islands. A yellow dye is obtained by boiling the wood, and this is principally used for converting silks and woollens, cotton yarns and light fabrics, already dyed blue, to a green. Its use is almost wholly for compound colors-bichromate of potassa and lead giving a better yellow. The yellow crystalline substance morin separates from a concentrated decoction of fustic by cooling. The wood is known as old fustic to distinguish it from the wood of the rhus cotinus, or Venice sumach, which is sometimes called young fustic, but more properly fustet, the name used by the French. It is a shrub cultivated in Italy and the south of France for purposes of dyeing and tanning. Its wood gives a yellowish decoction, which is used as an assistant to procure some particular tint. The color is too fugitive for use alone. The principle fustin is extracted from this wood. FUTTEHGHUR, FUTTYGURH, or FATAGHUR, a military station in the district of Furruckabad, N. W. provinces, British India, on the right bank of the Ganges, 3 m. below Furruckabad, of which it is little more than the cantonment, and 703 m. N. W. from Calcutta. It contains a church, and a large factory and storehouse 2,156 of gun carriages. On June 18, 1857, the Fut1,832 tehghur troops suddenly rose, and the Euro810 peans, numbering about 100, of whom 30 were fit 680 to bear arms, fortified themselves in the yard of the gun carriage warehouse, where they made a gallant defence until July 4. Then, driven to extremities, they embarked on the 109 river, where many perished by drowning or were shot by the rebels. A few reached the shore and escaped; one boat kept on its voyage to Bittoor, where its occupants were seized, placed in confinement at Cawnpore, and made to share the fate of the unhappy European residents of that town. Degrees Centigrade. 1,600 .1,300 to 1,400 1,200 1,050 1,250 1,180 1,000 900 432 860 820 202 896 230 446 114 107 43 68 49 130 00 -10 608 237 225 154 32 14 -88 The fusing point of oils, &c., is ascertained by introducing them together with a fine thermometer into small glass tubes, and placing these in water, which is gradually heated till the substances melt. The thermometer indicates the temperature. The method of determining the high melting points of the metals, &c., will be described in the article PYROMETER. FUSIBLE METALS. See ALLOY, and Bis MUTH. FUSTIAN, coarse twilled cotton fabrics, including corduroy, velveteen, velverett, thicksett, moleskin, &c. The common fustian is a FUTTEHPOOR, a district of British India, in the Doab, having N. E. and E. the Ganges and the province of Allahabad, and S. W. and N. W. the Jumna and Cawnpore; area, 1,583 sq. m.; pop. 679,787. The climate, like that of southern Oude, is remarkable for its aridity and wide range of temperature. The soil is fertile, and the principal productions are indigo, wheat, barley, cotton, opium, and sugar cane. The great trunk road from Calcutta to Delhi and the northern Doab passes through the ter ritory of Futtehpoor. This district formerly belonged to the nabobs of Oude, but was ceded to the E. I. company in 1801, who annexed it to the presidency of Bengal. Since the division of that presidency it has constituted part of the government of the N. W. provinces.-FUTTEHPOOR, the capital of the above district, is a large, well built town, 70 m. N. W. from Allahabad, with which it has communication by the great trunk railway, opened to this point March 25, 1858; pop. 20,864. The town was taken by the rebels during the great revolt, and was recaptured by Gen. Havelock, July 12, 1857, after an engagement of 4 hours, in which the rebels suffered severely and lost 12 guns, while no British soldier was either killed or wounded. FUTTIPOOR SIKRA, or FUTHEPOOR SIKRI, a town of the N. W. provinces, British India, in the district of Agra, and 23 m. W. from the city of that name; pop. 5,949. It is enclosed by a high stone wall, 5 m. in circuit, with towers and battlements, but contains little more than heaps of massive ruins, a grand mosque, and a good bazaar. The mosque is built on a commanding hill, and is still in tolerable repair. Its gateway is 72 feet high from the pavement to the summit of the interior outline, or 120 feet to the exterior summit. Westward of it are the remains of a vast palace, with terraces, gardens, irrigating canals, wells, and long rows of handsome stables. All the apartments are G, the 7th letter of the Latin and of almost all other European alphabets, was originally the 3d in the Phoenician and other ancient Semitic graphic systems, as well as in the Greek and ancient Italic. Its Semitic name, gamal, gimel, changed into yauua, arose from its similarity in shape to a camel's neck. It was pronounced in all those languages, and in the Celt ic, Moso-Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Frisian, and other ancient German tongues, as in our words go, get, give, glib. This sound was wanting to the Etruscans and Sabines; and as the Romans first wrote it with C, like the Umbri, employing K for the corresponding close sound (e. g. LECIONES, ECFOCIONT, &c., for legiones, effugiunt, on the columna rostrata of Duilius; Caius, Cnaus, pronounced Gaius, Gnaus; Kaso for Caso, &c.), a freedman of Spurius Carvilius Ruga (6th century of the city) formed the G from the C, for the designation of this mild guttural sound. As such it was inserted between F and H, in the place of the Semitic zain, answering to nra. In Armenian and Georgian it is also the 3d letter, in Slavonic the 4th, in the various Irish writings the 10th or 12th, in the Runes stungen kaun (pointed K) or gnesol. Gim, the 5th Arabic letter, although made from the 3d Cufic, is uttered with the hissing dental sound of our J; while ghain, the 15th (intensive ain), represents the deepest VOL. VIII.-3 arched, and appear to have been highly decorated. Near it there is a column 40 or 50 feet high, built of composition moulded to imitate elephants' tusks; and outside the walls is a ruined embankment, 20 m. in circuit, which pent up the waters of a torrent till they formed a broad lake, on the margin of which was an amphitheatre for public games, elephant fights, and other amusements. These great works were constructed as late as the year 1571 by the emperor Akbar. On Oct. 28, 1857, a body of rebels were defeated here by a British force from Agra. FYZABAD, or BANGLA, a town of British India, in the territory of Oude, situated on the right bank of the Goggra, which in the rainy season is here sometimes 14 m. wide, 89 m. E. from Lucknow; pop. estimated at 100,000. It was founded by Saadat Ali Khan, 1st vizier of Oude, and was beautified by his successors, particularly by Surajah Dowlah, under whom it became the capital instead of the ancient city of Oude or Ayodha, adjoining it on the S. E. In 1775 the seat of government was removed to Lucknow. Since that time the deserted city has been falling to decay, and its population is rapidly decreasing. On June 8, 1857, 2 native infantry regiments, a troop of cavalry, and a detachment of artillery, mutinied here, placed their officers in confinement, and next day sent them in boats toward Dinapoor. G The genuine sound of G is guttural, and is thus produced: the posterior part of the tongue is raised toward the velum palatinum, which sinks to meet it; after a slight contact both are suddenly withdrawn, allowing the breath to pass, while the larynx oscillates and the margins of the glottis are contracted. This oscillation renders the G more sonorous and mild than K. The spurious sounds are more or less harsh dental hisses. G is guttural in the Romanic languages and in high German before a, o, u; before e, i, y, it is dental and hissing, and might be indicated by dzh in Italian, English, and Portuguese, and by zh in French (like z in glazier), In Spanish it sounds in those positions like h in helmet. The Bohemians pronounce it, even before a, o, u, like y in yard. In Italian gli answer to Fr. ill mouillé, Span. ll, Portug. Ih, Magyar ly; Ital. and Fr. gn to Span. ñ, Portug, nh, Magyar ny. But Magyar gy is pronounced as if it were written dy. In Latin the final sound of a preposition, followed in composition by a g, is assimilated to the latter, as aggero, suggero, for ad-gero, sub-gero.-The following are specimens of interchanges of G with various letters: C, K-Heb. gadesh, Arab. kadis, heap of sheaves; Heb. gānaz and kānas, to collect, &c.; Gr. yvodepos (dark), Lat. creperus, crepuscus; Пpokvη, Progne; KUKvos, cygnus; rego, rexi, (recsi), rectum; vicesimus and vigesimus; largus, longus, Provençal larc, lone; Gades, Cadix; crassus, grossus, acutus, Fr. gras, gros, aigu; Fr. cicogne, second, pronounced cigogne, segond; Gr. yovu, Lat. genu, Eng. knee; Lat. genitus, Germ. Kind; Lat. generosus, generatus, Engkind, kindred, &c. Ch, H-Gr. xn, Germ. Gans, Eng. goose, gander, Bohem. hus; Gr. x3ns, Lat. hesternus, Germ. gestern, Eng. yester-day, &c. I, J, Y, U, V, W, X-Provençal essag, Fr. essai, essayer (barb. Lat. exagium); Lat. rex, regem, regalis, lex, legalis, &c., Sanscrit rajah (dialect. rayah), Fr. roi, royal, Sp. rey; Fr. loi, Sp. ley, Eng. law; Germ. Nagel, Segel, Regen, Tag, Säge, sagen, folgen, sorgen, &c., Eng. nail, sail, rain, day and dawn, saw, say and said, follow, sorrow; Lat. gilvus (helvus, fulvus, flavus), Germ. gelb, Eng. yellow; Lat. hortus, Germ. Garten, Eng. yard, ward; Germ. Hagen and Hain, Hecke, Hagedorn, Fr. Haie, Eng. Hague, hedge, hawthorn; Gr. yupevei, Lat. gyrare, Provenç. virar, Fr. virer, whence environ, &c. Promiscuous examples: Germ. Gundobert, Fr. Jombert; Ang. Sax. gaflad, Eng. gavelock, Fr. javelot; Sp. hielo, hiema, hieso (obsolete yelo, yema, yeso), from Lat. gelu, gemma, gypsum; Sp. hermano, (Portug. irmao), hinojo, from Lat. germanus, genu (geniculum); Sp. laya, from Germ. Lage; Germ. schlagen, Schlacht, Eng. slay, slaughter. Compare guardian, guerre, guêpe, gain, Gallus, with warden, war, vespa, win, Wallon and Wales; Fr. Javoux, Lat. Gabali urbs; Slavic dialects, hospodin, hlava, holub, Halicz, hora, &c., with gospodin (master, lord), golova (head), golub and golomb (Lat. columba), Galicia, gora (mountain), &c.; gallus with Germ. Hahn. Gr. Kaum (a bent) gave Fr. jambe, ingambe, Eng. ham, Fr. jambon. Unorganic, accidental substitutions: Fr. changer, from barb. Lat. cambiare; Turkish Gharandaberk (for Prussia), from Brandenburg; Gr. yaλavos and Baλavos, Lat. glans, Eng. acorn; Gr. yλnxwv and Banxwv, whence Lat. pulegium; Gr. Anunrnp and InunTηp, SEUKOs and yλevkos, yλukus, Lat. dulcis; Gr. oaypa, Romanic salma, soma, Germ. Saum, load of a beast of burden; Bagdad, Ital. Baldacco; Gr. ouapaydos, Ital. smeraldo, Fr. émeraude. The degeneration of the guttural G into the dental is foreshadowed by the Greek Z, which sounds as if it were written with the English dz or 2d combined; hence the correspondence between λos and Ital. geloso, Fr. jaloux, Eng. jealous; Zevs, Aios, Diespiter, Jupiter, Ital. Giove, like giorno from Lat. diurno, Fr. jour, &c. G is omitted in Latin fibula, examen, con tamino, &c., from figibula, exagmen, contagmi no; nascor, nosco, narus, navus, which corre spond to yiyvopai, gignor, yivwokw, retaining the g in compounds, as in cognatus, cognitus, igna rus, ignavus; Ital. Aosta, Fr. août, Lat. Augusta; Ital. nero, leale, sciaurato, conoscere, from Lat. nigro, legale, exaugurato, cognoscere, &c.; Sp. pereza, Fr. paresse, Lat. pigritia; Provençal flairar, Fr. flairer, Lat. fragrare; Ital. coitare, freddo, paese, &c., Sp. cuidar, frio, pais, from Lat. cogitare, frigido, pagense; Ital. aumentare, frammento, from Lat. augmentare, fragmento; Fr. bénin, malin, Lat. benignus, malignus. The German particle ge (Lat. cum, que, ac), a formative of the past participle, collective nouns, &c., is expressed in English by e, y, a; thus: enough, yclad, agone, Germ. genug, gekleidet, gegangen. From the last we obtain also yon, yonder.During the decline of Latinity G was used to designate 400, and G 400,000. As an abbrevia tion it denotes Gellius, Gallia, Germania, Galeria tribus, gens, gratia; and in the middle ages Senarius. On modern coins it indicates Poitiers, Geneva, Nagy-Bánya in Hungary, and Stettin in Pomerania. It is the last dominical letter.-In music, it is the name of the 5th diatonic interval, and the 8th string of the diatonochromatic string. It is the clef-altered into -of the violin or the treble. Capital G marks the deepest tone of the human voice; its octave being the small g. It is named sol in solmization. GÅBELENTZ, HANS KONON VON DER, a German philologist, born in Altenburg, Oct. 13, 1807, has written Éléments de la grammaire Mandschoue (Altenburg, 1832); Grundzüge der Syrjanischen Grammatik (1841); Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde (Leipsic, 1852-3); Grammatik und Wörterbuch der Kassiasprache (1857), &c. GABELLE, a French word derived from the German Gabe, gift or tribute, meaning originally every kind of indirect taxes, but afterward applied exclusively to the duty upon salt. This, from the beginning, was the most unpopular of taxes; its arbitrary assessment, and the tyrannical measures of the officers intrusted with its collection, frequently caused rebellions among the poor people in the provinces of France; while every kind of subterfuge was resorted to in order to avoid the payment of it. It was finally repealed in 1790. GABOON RIVER, called also the Mpongwe in the language of the people at its mouth, is a large river of western Africa, in lat. 0° 30' N., long. 9° E., about 120 miles in length, which takes its rise in the Sierra del Crystal mountains. It empties into a large bay 12 or 15 m. wide, 10 long, and 7 wide at its mouth, which receives also the waters of several smaller streams, and in which are two islands known as Parrot and Konig islands. The Gaboon is a broad and deep stream, with hardly any current, the mass of its waters being due to the tide, which rises from 7 to 9 feet at 60 m. from its mouth. The river is very unhealthy; mangroves abound along its shores. At the mouth of the river the French established in 1843 a fortified factory. |