These several kinds are reared in gardens, being trained upon trellises and around poles as articles of ornament or of curiosity. Several kinds of gourds, too, are cultivated as esculents, their fruits being called summer squashes. These have likewise hard rinds and a dry spongy pulp when they are fully ripened and dry, and therefore are only fit for food when half-grown and succulent and mucilaginous. They form a particular group in the gourd family, and are unlike others, which can be laid aside for winter use. Among them are the scalloped summer squash (called cymling at the south), and the long-necked warty squash, supposed to be respectively C. melopepo and verrucosa (Linn.), but according to some researches instituted by the late Thaddeus William Harris of Harvard college, these names are erroneously applied. From their inability to extend their branches laterally, or to run over the ground, some are called bush squashes. In England the succade is raised exclusively for the table, a sort supposed to have originated from the C. ovifera (Linn.). According to Dalechamps (1586), the C. verrucosa was some sort of a winter squash; and in the small warted pumpkin of Nantucket Dr. Harris was inclined to suspect that he had found the true species. From this peculiar variety, so universally raised on that island, and supposed to have come from the Indians, may have originated our present field pumpkins, frequently planted among the hills of Indian corn, and considered a part of the crop. It is to this section of the gourds called pumpkins that the immensely growing fruit of the Valparaiso (said to have been introduced by Commodore Porter of the U. S. navy) belongs; and from some hybridization with it originated the marrow or autumnal marrow squash, which is really a pumpkin, and can be kept for winter use. Somewhat similar is the Hubbard squash, also remarkable for its keeping properties. The seeds of these differ from those of the true gourds and from the seeds of the summer squashes, being plumper, longer, wider, and with a thicker margin. The true winter squash is represented in the bell-shaped species, the base being very broad and the neck very short. From this have come the crook-neck and the Canada crookneck; the latter is a small sub-variety induced by climate, and when planted where the heat is longer continued, it grows to greater magnitude. Champlain found the bell-shaped winter squash among the northern Indians in 1605. Much difference, not only in the shape of the seeds, but in that of the leaves and in the structure of the fruits, is perceptible between these different groups of cucurbita or gourds. The native country of many of the most useful of them is considered to be unknown, although some botanists assign the East Indies as their home. It is more probable that they were indigenous to the tropics of America. The cultivation of the squash and pumpkin is exceedingly simple, ample nutriment from stimulating manures and considerable heat being the chief

requisites. The only caution to be observed is to avoid a promiscuous planting of several kinds, as oftentimes the best and most esteemed soon become worthless by hybridizing with the coarser and inferior sorts. This is usually effected by bees and insects, and distance or seclusion of the particular fruit to be saved for seed sowing is the only preventive.

GOURGAUD, GASPARD, baron, a French general, born in Versailles, Sept. 14, 1783, died July 26, 1852. He studied at the polytechnic school, and at that of Châlons, entered the army in 1802, and fought in the campaigns of Germany (1805-'6), of Poland (1807), of Spain (1808), and again in Germany (1809). Sent to Dantzio in 1811 to examine the strength of its fortifications, his reports gained the favor of Napoleon, and Gourgaud accompanied the emperor to Dresden, and on his march to Russia in 1812. He was wounded at Smolensk; at Moscow he prevented an explosion of 5,000 cwt. of gunpowder stored in the Kremlin, and was rewarded with the title of baron. On the retreat he proved his bravery at the passage of the Beresina. He fought in the battles of Saxony, where, after the battle of Leipsic, he saved the corps of Marshal Oudinot by delaying the command of Napoleon to destroy the bridge of Freyberg. After the battle of Brienne in the campaign of 1814, he saved Napoleon at Mézières from a troop of Cossacks, one of whom was already aiming his lance at the emperor. After the fall of Napoleon he was well treated by the Bourbons, on whose flight he joined the emperor (1815). Made general after the battle of Fleurus, he was among the last on the battle field of Waterloo, followed Napoleon to Malmaison and Rochefort, and carried his letter to the prince regent of England. Chosen one of the three who were allowed to follow the emperor in his exile, he lived 3 years at St. Helena, but left the island in consequence of illness and misunderstandings, went to England, and addressed the congress of Aix la Chapelle and Maria Louisa in favor of the captive emperor. Having published an offensive account of the battle of Waterloo, he was arrested and sent to Cuxhaven. 1821 he was allowed to return to France, where a legacy from Napoleon enabled him to live independently, though deprived of his titles. Together with Gen. Montholon he published the Mémoires de Napoléon à Ste. Hélène (8 vols., London, 1823). His Examen critique (1825) of Ségur's "History of the Grand Army" caused a duel between the two generals, and was followed by a sharp controversy with Sir Walter Scott, who accused him of having compromised his master at St. Helena. Under Louis Philippe he was again in active service, was made commander of the artillery at Paris, lieutenant-general, and peer of France. In 1840 he accompanied the duke de Joinville on his journey to St. Helena, to bring the remains of Napoleon to Paris. After the revolution of Feb. 1848, he was colonel of the first legion of the national guard of Paris, and member

In

of the legislative assembly, where he sided with the conservatives.

GOUT, a painful disease affecting principally the fibrous tissues about the smaller joints, and intimately connected with an excess of uric acid and its compounds in the blood. Various names have been given according to the part affected, as podagra when in the feet, chiragra when in the hands, sciatica when in the thigh, &c.; but all such, and probably many cases of neuralgia accompanied by oxalic deposits in the urine, are mere forms of one disease. A common attack of acute gout is generally preceded by uneasiness, indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, biliary derangement, dull pains or numbness in the parts to be affected, often with feverish symptoms; but in some cases, on the contrary, the disease comes on in the midst of apparent health and well-being, and occasionally at night during refreshing sleep. In most cases it makes itself known by an acute pain in the metatarso-phalangeal joint of the great toe; different sufferers compare this to the sensations produced by the contact of a drop of cold water, or of cold or heated metal, or by twisting, dislocation, or laceration, as by a nail or wedge driven into the foot; this is accompanied by feverish symptoms, urinary sediment, extreme tenderness, restlessness, involuntary muscular contractions, sleeplessness, and perspiration; the affected joint is swollen, red, and hot. This series of symptoms may last 4 or 5 days, to be followed after a day or two by 3 or 4 others, continuing in all from 2 to 3 weeks; the severity of the attack, its persistence, its seat, and its metastases vary according to circumstances. This first warning past, the luxurious epicure may not receive another, even if he persist in his indulgences, for months or perhaps years; but the second comes, and the third, and so on, the intervals between the attacks becoming less; though the pain be less severe, the joints are more discolored and swollen, with oedema and chalky deposits in their neighborhood; and by a sudden retrocession toward the internal vital organs, life may be seriously threatened. When gout becomes chronic the attacks are more irregular, less severe, more frequent and sudden, leaving one joint for another after slight exposure to cold and moisture, excess at table, or vivid emotions; in this form, the continuance of the pain, and the fear of injuring the gouty joints, render its subjects cross, fretful, and disagreeable, though persons thus affected are often able to devote themselves to serious study and important private and public business; gouty fingers have signed state documents of great moment, and deformed and almost anchylosed toes have borne their owners painfully and slowly to conferences where a people's happiness was at stake. The pathology of gout reduces itself chiefly to the abnormal presence of uric acid in the blood, and to the deposit of urate of soda in the fibrous tissue around the joints and sheaths of tendons. Gout is rare before the age of 20, and men of robust constitution and of a mixed sanguine

and bilious temperament are far more liable to it than females; it may be inherited, and seems independent of climate except so far as it influences the diet of a people, the northern races from necessity being generally less temperate in the use of stimulating food and drinks than southern nations. A life of indolent sensuality, amid the excitements and passions of civilization in cities, and the use of highly seasoned animal food with alcoholic stimulants, are the predisposing causes to this disease, the only consolation of which in the minds of its victims is that it belongs almost exclusively (at least in its worst manifestations) to the wealthy, the aristocratic, the fashionable, and the luxurious. A person may have a gouty diathesis, and die from the evils arising from it, without having experienced what is popularly understood as a "fit of the gout;" the gout poison (uric acid) may be eliminated from the blood in any organ rich in fibrous tissue, and from recent researches it would seem that many cases of neuralgia (sciatica and hemicrania), lithiasis, and oxaluria, with oxalate of lime deposits in the urine, are symptoms of the same morbific action, an excess of uric acid in the blood either from over production or accumulation; the habits and manner of life, the tissues most affected, and the peculiar urinary deposit, indicate the identity of the above forms of disease, and the propriety of the same treatment in all. Organic chemistry teaches that in the gouty diathesis, with excess of urates and oxalates, there is a deficiency of oxygen in the system; hence the uric acid may remain unchanged, or may be oxidized only into oxalic acid, the latter remaining as such instead of undergoing further oxidation and being converted into carbonic acid and urea, in which forms it can be removed from the organism. As the urate of soda is the principal cause of the pain in gouty joints, so oxalate of lime may be the immediate producer of the pains of sciatica. This view of the correlation of gout and neuralgia is fully treated by Dr. Easton, in the "Glasgow Medical Journal" for Oct. 1858. We find gout attacking the upper ranks of society, who indulge in a highly nitrogenous diet, which tends to produce uric acid in excess, even though the normal quantity should be duly eliminated, and the disease assumes the form of urate of soda deposits in the joints; in the lower classes, consuming less animal and stimulating food, and taking in more oxygen from their daily exercise, the uric acid becomes the oxalic, and the gouty diathesis manifests itself in neuralgia with oxalate of lime in abundance in the urine. By many authors rheumatism is considered closely allied to gout; and accordingly cases of the latter disease affecting especially fibrous tissues are sometimes called rheumatic gout, a pathological hybrid as absurd and impossible as scarlatinic measles would be, as Dr. Garrod has clearly shown; a gouty person may have also rheumatism, but the two diseases are distinct and cannot pass the one into the other, the former having as a promi

ous length. Of these works the 1st is supposed to have perished, the 2d exists in manuscript copies, and the 3d, which was finished in 1393, was first published by Caxton in 1493. A new edition, with a life of the author and a glossary, by Dr. Reinbold Pauli, appeared in London in 1857 (3 vols. 8vo.). Some smaller poems of no great merit are preserved in MS. in the library of Trinity college, Cambridge; and Warton discovered in the library of the marquis of Stafford a volume of balades in French, which was printed in 1818 by Lord Gower for the Roxburgh club. Gower is known chiefly by his Confessio Amantis, which was undoubtedly suggested by Chaucer's English poems. Hallam says: "He is always sensible, polished, perspicuous, and not prosaic in the worst sense of the word." In the latter part of his life he was afflicted with blindness.

GOYANNA, a town of Brazil, in the prov. ince of Pernambuco, on the river Goyanna, 35 m. N. W. of Olindo, and 12 m. from the sea: pop. 6,000.

GOYAZ, a central province of Brazil, between lat. 6° and 20° S.; area, 313,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1853, 120,000; in 1856, according to government returns, which, however, are not to be trusted, 180,000. The surface is mountainous, and intersected by numerous rivers. The soil, except near the rivers, is not remarkable for fertility. The chief productions are cotton, timber, and cattle.-GoYaz, the capital of the above province, is situated on the Vermelho, 680 m. N. W. of Rio de Janeiro; pop. 7,000.

GOZLAN, LÉON, a French dramatist and littérateur, born in Marseilles in 1806. His most popular productions are: La goutte de lait (1848), Le gâteau des reines (1855-'6), Il faut que jeunesse se paie (his best comedy), and Un petit bout d'oreille (1857). Among his tales and novels are: Le médecin du Pecq (new ed. 1858), La famille Lambert (new ed. 1858, dramatized in 1857), Les maîtresses de Paris, &c. GRAAL, or GRAIL, THE HOLY (in old French san gréal, in old English sancgreall, either from Fr. saint, holy, and the Celtic greal, Provençal grazal, and med. Lat. gradalis, a vase or cup, or from the French sang réal, the "real blood" of Christ), one of the leading themes of medieval romance, fabled to have been the cup from which at our Saviour's last supper he drank the wine, and gave to his disciples to drink, saying: This is my blood." The cup was preserved by Joseph of Arimathea, who received into it also the blood that flowed from the side of Jesus on the cross, and afterward preserved it with pious care as a precious relic. Such is the account given in the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, from which time both ecclesiastical and profane writers are silent concerning it for many centuries. In the 12th century it reappears, clothed with marvellous attributes, the central subject of the prophecies of Merlin, and the object of the adventurous quest of all the knights of the round table. The legend assumed manifold forms in a great diversity of romances. Ac

cording to one of the earliest traditions, it was made of a single precious stone, possessed miraculous life-giving powers, had originally been brought from heaven by angels, and was preserved by a society of chosen knights in a temple on the unapproachable mountain, Montsalvage. It seems to have been associated with the contests between the Moors and Christians in Spain, and with the foundation of the order of templars. In the Arthurian romances Joseph of Arimathea is confounded with a missionary and bishop named Joseph, mentioned in the chronicles as having been sent in the 4th century by St. Augustine from Africa to Britain, and said to have crossed the seas from Judæa, guided only by the flaps of his garments which he trailed as a rudder. On his arrival in Britain he consecrated his son first bishop of the country, and made his other relatives Christian kings, the successors of the exterminated or converted pagan kings. It is related that after the death of Christ he had been imprisoned by the Jews for 50 years, but had been kept by the holy graal in perpetual youth. He was released by the personal aid of the Saviour, who taught him the words of the mass, and bade him renew every day the sacrament of the last supper. The holy graal was the last cup from which he had drunk, and contained the last drops of blood that he had shed on the cross, and its possessor alone had power to confer on other chalices made in its likeness its own mysterious power to effect the transubstantiation. Thus the holy graal lay at the foundation of the exercise of the Christian priesthood. Among the privileges which the holy graal conferred on its possessor was that of perpetual youth. It was however required of him that he should be a perfect man, and a virgin. In some forms of the legend the vessel remained in the care of Joseph of Arimathea; more frequently he is said to have died after several centuries, and after bestowing his authority and the holy graal on his son; the latter also preferred the joys of heaven to an eternal life on earth, and in like manner consecrated one of his relatives in his place. The last was a contemporary of King Arthur, and, unmindful of his charge, sinned, and the sacred vessel fled from him, and was lost. To find and recover it was the task which the knights of the round table imposed on themselves. The quest was long and adventurous, because the vessel changed its place, and always escaped even from the sight of every one who did not possess perfect purity. At length, according to Sir Thomas Malory's compilation, Sir Lancelot reached "the doore of the chamber wherin the holy sancgreall was." He was warned to depart when the door opened, but nevertheless he dared to look in, "and saw a table of silver, and the holy vessel covered with red samite, and many angels about it, whereof one of them held a candell of wax burning, and the other held a crosse and the ornaments of the alter." He ventured to enter, but when he came nigh the table of silver "he felt a breath, that him thought was

intermeddled with fire, which smote him so sore in the visage that him thought it all tobrent his visage, and therewith he fell to the ground, and had no power to rise." He lay "twentie-foure dayes and as many nights as a dead man," and recovered only to return to King Arthur's court, and to abandon further quest. It was reserved to Sir Galahad, who possessed all the requisite perfection of purity, to achieve the holy graal. He was admitted to view it, but 66 began to tremble right sore when the deadly flesh began to behold the spirituall things. Then he held up both his hands toward heaven, and said: Lord, I thanke thee, for now I see that which hath beene my desire many a day. Now, blessed Lord, would I no longer live, if it might please thee, good Lord."" His death followed, and immediately after the holy graal was carried up to heaven. "Sithence was there never no man so hardy for to say that hee had seene the sancgreal." In other romances Sir Percival is distinguished in the place of Sir Galahad. At a later period several churches in France and Italy claimed to possess the holy graal, and in 1101, the crusaders obtained a cup which was for a time identified with it, and which is still preserved in the cathedral of Genoa.-The Queste du Saint Graal is one of the longest of the 5 great romances of the cycle of King Arthur. The Parcival and Titurel of Wolfram von Eschenbach treat the same subject. See also Boisserée, Ueber die Beschreibung des Tempels des heiligen Graal (Munich, 1834).

GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH, a German dramatist, born in Detmold, Dec. 14, 1801, died there, Sept. 12, 1836. His best dramas are: Don Juan und Faust, Friedrich Barbarossa, Aschenbrödel, and Die Hermannsschlacht.

GRACCHUS, TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS, a Roman statesman, born about 168 B. C., or according to Plutarch 5 years later, died in 138 B. C. His father, Tiberius Gracchus, had been censor, consul, and a successful commander, but was even more renowned for his virtues, says Plutarch, than for his public honors. The mother of the Gracchi, Cornelia, was a daughter of Scipio Africanus. She had 12 children, 9 of whom died young, leaving her two sons and one daughter, Sempronia, who was married to Scipio Africanus the younger. Tiberius, the eldest son, carefully educated by accomplished Greek instructors, and a fine speaker, was renowned even in youth, and fought with distinction under Scipio Africanus at the siege of Carthage, being the first to mount the walls at the storming of that city. As soon as his age allowed he was chosen into the college of augurs. Appius Claudius sought and obtained him as the husband of his daughter. Tiberius went as quæstor with the consul Mancinus against the Numantines; and when that consul by his misconduct had nearly lost his army, Gracchus negotiated a treaty which saved 20,000 Romans. But the senate refused to be bound by the treaty; they even resolved to send back Mancinus with

all his officers to the enemy. The people interfered, saved the officers, and only the consul was given up. This action on the part of the people, it is said, won them the sympathy of Tiberius. On his way to Spain through Etruria, Gracchus had been struck by the solitude of that once populous region. He saw that the great proprietors had driven out the small farmers; only slaves and cattle filled its fertile territory. He now resolved to revive the Licinian law, and became the friend of the people. His mother, it is said, encouraged him to enter into politics, and complained that she was known as the mother-in-law of Scipio rather than the mother of the Gracchi. Gracchus, having consulted with his father-in-law, with Mucius Scævola, the famous lawyer, and others, now proposed to revive, with a few modifications, a forgotten law passed 232 years before, the effect of which would be to take away from the rich the excess of the public lands held by them above a certain limit. He would allow to each man only 500 jugera (about 300 acres); and if he had two sons, they might hold 250 jugera each. Some compensation for buildings was to be made to the holders from the public treasury, and 3 commissioners were to be appointed to carry out the law. The surplus taken from the rich was to be divided among the landless. Tiberius was elected tribune 133 B. C., and proposed to the tribes this law, known as the agrarian law. The rich optimates opposed it with violence. Some of the ancient aristocracy sustained Gracchus, but the majority of the senate hated him. They persuaded one of the tribunes, M. Octavius, to oppose his veto to the law. This checked the reformer, but in turn he suspended the functions of every officer in the state, and sealed up the public treasury. The nobles, however, still resisted. The reformer determined to depose Octavius by the votes of the tribes who had elected him. The voting went on until 17 of the 35 tribes had voted for his deposition, when Gracchus once more tried persuasion. Octavius had been his friend. He besought him to yield; he embraced, he kissed him; he reminded him of their former friendship, and offered to repay him for all the land he might be forced to lose. Octavius would have relented, but the optimates prevented him. He was deposed, and Gracchus sent an officer to drag him from the tribunal. The people crowded around the deposed tribune, and in the tumult one of the servants of Octavius was killed. The new law having now been passed, 3 commissioners, Tiberius Gracchus, his father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his young brother Caius, then serving under Scipio in Spain, were appointed. The senate would allow Tiberius only a denarius and a half (about 20 cents) for his daily expenses as commissioner. Both parties were now excited to fierce hostility. A friend of Tiberius happening to die about this time, it was believed that he had been poisoned by the nobles, and Gracchus went about attended by a body guard of his friends. Attalus, king of