year the mean average temperature is about 70°, and at all seasons there is a great uniformity in that of day and night. During the summer months, when the wind blows from the desert plains of the north, it is so dry and parched as to be almost unendurable, destroying furniture and every thing else of wood. Scarcely a soul is then seen in the streets, every one remaining quietly within doors, and passing the time with as little exertion as possible. The place was formerly considered healthy; but of late it has suffered terribly from epidemics, one following the other until the town had lost nearly one-third of its population. Cholera and bilious fevers have been the chief epidemics.

GUDGEON, a piece of metal inserted in each end of a revolving shaft, to serve as a pivot. It consists of 4 wings or blades, which are let into the wood, and the pin which projects from the centre. Gudgeons are commonly made of cast iron, and for the sake of reducing the friction the pins are of the smallest size consistent with the necessary strength. The cube root of the number of hundred weights to be supported is nearly equal, it is calculated, to the diameter in inches of the gudgeons required. But if made of wrought iron of average quality, instead of cast, it is stated that the diameter may be reduced in the proportion of. The bearings for gudgeons, or, as sometimes called, for journals, these being the parts of a shaft between the points where the power and resistance are applied, are boxes made of brass or of brass lined with a soft alloy, described in the article BABBITT'S METAL. The use of iron boxes has increased of late years; and they answer very well, if kept oiled. But it is found that hard wood wears better than metal. Such was the experience in the British screw steamer Himalaya, on replacing the old brass bearings with others of lignum vitæ. The shaft has a bearing surface of 4 feet in length with a diameter of 18 inches, and over this surface is sheathed with brass. The box upon which it bears is a cast iron pipe, passing through the stern. This was lined with lignum vitæ, inserted in strips, each one 3 inches wide, of an inch thick, and extending the whole length of the bearing. They were firmly secured in their places, and their surfaces were scored to allow water to circulate freely over them. After the ship had run about 30,000 miles, and the engines had made about 8,000,000 revolutions, the total wear was found not to exceed of an inch. In such situations, where the bearings can be kept constantly wet, as for water wheels, there is no better material than hard wood.

GUDGEON, a cyprinoid fish, of the genus gobio (Cuv.), found in the fresh water streams and lakes of central and temperate Europe. It is characterized by a lengthened, rounded body, with short dorsal and anal fins without serrated rays; by a labial barbel at each corner of the mouth; by pharyngeal teeth, conical, slightly curved at the tip, and in two rows; and by a wide, flattened head, with an obtuse snout, and VOL. VIII.-35

the lower jaw the shorter; the swimming bladder is large and double. The common gudgeon (G. fluviatilis, Cuv.) is 7 or 8 inches long, of a greenish brown color above and on the sides, white below, the pectorals, ventrals, and anal grayish white tinged with brown, and the dorsal and caudal pale brown with darker spots. It occurs in shoals in the gravelly waters of England, France, central Europe, Russia, southern Sweden, the Swiss lakes, &c., and is rare in Italy and southern Europe. The food consists of worms, aquatic insects and larvæ, small mollusks, ova, and fry; the eggs are laid between April and August, and the young grow to a length of about 4 inches the first year. It is much esteemed as food for its delicate flavor, and affords good sport to the angler, as it is a bold though capricious biter; it will bite at all times of day, but best in the morning and evening, and in cloudy weather; the line must be very fine, and the hook kept within an inch of the bottom; the best bait is the common red dunghill worm. A favorite resort is on the Thames, near Windsor, where great numbers are taken from boats; the ground is occasionally well stirred with a rake, the discoloration of the water thus produced bringing the gudgeons in shoals; they are very tenacious of life. Five other species are described in Europe and Asia, and one from the Niagara river (G. cata racte, Val.), about 5 inches long; the color of this above is gray, plumbeous on the sides, silvery white below, and the fins gray.

GUDIN, JEAN ANTOINE THÉODORE, a French painter, born in Paris, Aug. 15, 1802. He was a pupil of Girodet, and from the outset of his career devoted himself exclusively to sea pieces. Among his best productions are a view of "Mont St. Michel at High Tide;" a "Steamboat landing Passengers at Dover;" a "Gale, Jan. 7, 1831, in Algiers Harbor;" "La Salle discovering Louisiana;" a "Naval Battle in the Chesapeake;" a "Shipwreck on the Coast of America." From 1838 to 1848 he executed more than 80 marine pictures for the Versailles museum. He is actively prosecuting his art, and visited the East in 1856.

GUEBRES, GHEBERS, GAVRES, or GAURS (i. e., giaours, “infidels"), a term applied by the Mohammedan conquerors of Persia to the disciples of Zoroaster in that country who call themselves Behendie, "followers of the true faith," and are generally known by Europeans as fire-worshippers. The time when Zoroaster flourished is not agreed upon; a recent publication by a member of the sect who is regarded as an authority by his countrymen fixes it in the 6th century B. C. (Tareekh-i-Zurtoshtee, or "Discussion on the Era of Zoroaster," by Nourozjee Furdoonjee, of Bombay, 1851). On the conquest of Persia by Alexander of Macedon the Zoroastrian religion began to decline, and in time became much corrupted. King Ardeshir Babekan (A. D. 226) reformed it, collected the sacred books, caused them to be translated from the Zend language into the vernacular dialect of

Persia, and built temples for the preservation of the sacred fire. Under the Mohammedan invaders in the 7th century the Zoroastrians were persecuted, and most of them embraced Islamism. A small remnant who clung to their old faith were finally allowed to settle in one of the most barren parts of the kingdom. They now number about 100,000 souls, dwelling chiefly in the city of Yezd and the province of Kerman, whence they migrate every spring to work for hire during summer in various parts of the country. They are an ignorant, uncouth, industrious people, who bear a high character for virtue in comparison with other Persians, but oppression has made them crafty. Another body of Zoroastrians left Persia at the time of the conquest, and wandered into Hindostan, where they found protection under a rajah of Guzerat. They are numerous in western India at the present day, and are there called Parsees from the country of their origin. They are honored by Europeans for their estimable qualities, are the richest and most influential of the native citizens of Bombay, and form about 115,000 of the population of Bombay and Colabba islands. They keep up an intercourse with their brethren in Persia. Their worship in the course of time became corrupted by many Hindoo practices, and after an ineffectual attempt by the Parsee punchayet or council to purify it, a society called the Rahnumai Mazdiasna, or "Religious Reform Association," was organized in 1852 for the regeneration of the social condition of the Parsees and the restoration of the creed of Zoroaster to its original purity. The meetings and publications of this society are said to have had a considerable effect.-The Zoroastrian system recognizes one God, omnipotent, invisible, without form, the creator, ruler, and preserver of the universe, and the last judge. He is called Ormuzd, and sprang from primeval light, which emanated from a supreme incomprehensible essence called Zeruane Akerene, or the Eternal. Ormuzd created a number of good spirits to act as the medium of his bounty to men, and intrusted them with the guardianship each of a certain person, animal, or inanimate object. The sun is the "eye of Ormuzd," and like all the heavenly bodies is animated with a soul, comets (or "stars with tails") being under the care of the greater luminaries, and the dog star having general control over the whole sidereal system. The spirits of the stars have a beneficent influence upon the affairs of men, and can reveal the secrets of the future to those who understand their signs. Hence astrology has always been a favorite science with the Persians since this religion was established. The worship of idols, and indeed of any being except Ormuzd, is held in abomination; but a reverence for fire and the sun is inculcated, as they are emblems of the glory of the Supreme Deity. It is probably true, however, that the multitude in the course of time have forgotten that discrimination between the symbol and the object of their adoration which was undoubtedly taught by

Zoroaster. To Ormuzd as the source of all good is opposed Ahriman, the cause of evil; to worship the good spirit and hate the bad are the two fundamental_articles of the Guebre and Parsee creed. Prayer, obedience, industry, honesty, hospitality, alms deeds, chastity, and the rare eastern virtue of truthfulness, are enjoined, and envy, hatred, quarrelling, anger, revenge, and polygamy are strictly forbidden. Fasting and celibacy are considered displeasing to Ormuzd. The sacred fire which Zoroaster brought from heaven is kept continually burning in consecrated places, and is fed with choice wood and spices. The Parsees took it with them to India, and they affirm that the flame has never been extinguished. The Guebres often build their temples over subterranean fires, one of their holiest spots being at Bakoo on the shores of the Caspian sea, where for ages without intermission flames have issued from calcareous rocks. (See BAKOO.) They never blow out a light, because the breath is thought to pollute it. The priests are supposed to pass their whole time in praying, chanting hymns, tending the fires on the altars, burning incense, and performing ceremonies. Their office is open to all aspirants among the Guebres, but the Parsees have borrowed from the Hindoos the ideas of hereditary priesthood and caste observance. Their funeral ceremonies are very peculiar. The cemeteries are built in the form of a circle enclosed by high walls and smoothly paved. In the centre is a pit toward which the pavement slopes on all sides. The corpses are laid naked on this pavement to be eaten by birds of prey, and when the flesh has been stripped off, the bones are swept into the pit, whence they are removed by subterranean passages when the receptacle becomes full.-The precepts of the Zoroastrian religion are contained in the Zend Avesta, or collection of sacred writings, which Zoroaster received from heaven. It is acknowledged that this collection was lost at the time of the Mohammedan conquest, but copies of portions of it were preserved, and some of the ablest European scholars have borne witness to the probable identity of the books of the modern fire-worshippers with those in use by the Persians 12 centuries ago.

GUEGUETENANGO, or HUEHUETENANGO, a department of Guatemala, in the W. part of the republic; pop. in 1853, 64,800. It has a great variety of climate and productions; but as most of its territory is high and mountainous, its principal products are wheat and wool. It is within the jurisdiction of Totonicapam, and is a part of the region called Los Altos, the districts of which at one time formed a distinct state of the republic of Central America.-GUEGUETENANGO, the capital, is situated on an extensive plain, with a mild climate, luxuriant with tropical productions, at the E. foot of the Cordilleras or dividing range of mountains of the continent, 125 m. N. W. of Guatemala; pop. 5,000. The ruins of the aboriginal city are half a league distant from the modern town.

GUELPH, a town of Canada West, capital

of the co. of Wellington, on the river Speed, 47 m. from Toronto; pop. in 1858, about 4,500. It is picturesquely built on several hills, and contains churches of 7 denominations, 2 branch banks, 8 insurance agencies, a grammar school, a library and reading room, 3 newspaper offices, numerous grist, saw, carding, and fulling mills, 4 tanneries, an iron foundery, and several breweries and distilleries. It is a first class station on the Grand Trunk railway, the N. terminus of the Galt and Guelph railway, which connects with the Great Western, and the S. terminus of a proposed railway to Saugeen, 70 m. distant. The town has a large retail country trade, and exports wheat and flour. There are valuable limestone quarries in the neighborhood.

GUELPĤS AND GHIBELLÏNES (Germ. Welfen, Ital. Guelfi; and Germ. Wiblingen or Waiblingen, an estate belonging to the Hohenstauffen family, in the modern Würtemberg), the names of two celebrated factions in Italy and Germany during the middle ages. Guelph or Welf is a baptismal name in several German families, but more particularly known in the history of a line of princes originally Italian, and traced to the 9th century. They emigrated to Germany two centuries later, and became divided into two branches, both possessing large estates in southern Germany, between the Brenner and St. Gothard. The present royal family of England, and the ducal line of Brunswick in Germany, trace their descent to a Guelphic princess, Kunegunde, the heiress of one of the branches, who became the wife of Alberto Azzo II., a prince of Este, born in 996. By this marriage the estates of the Guelphs were united to those of the Este princes in Lombardy. The son of Kunegunde, Guelph IV., duke of Bavaria, inherited also the estates of the senior branch of the Guelphs, called the Guelphs of Altorf, and became thus the founder, as it were, of the reunited Guelphs. The emperor Henry IV. bestowed upon him the duchy of Bavaria, but soon incurred his enmity by restoring a part of the Bavarian possessions to their rightful duke, Otho II. Guelph took up arms against the emperor, and, in league with other discontented princes, defeated him in several battles. He died in Cyprus in 1101, on his return from the first crusade. Guelph II., his son, at first supported the emperor Henry IV., but soon deserted him and embraced the cause of the usurper Henry V., of whom he became a great favorite. He died in 1120, without children; and the duchy of Bavaria was inherited by his brother, Henry the Black, who transmitted it to his son Henry the Haughty, in 1126. The latter married the daughter of the emperor Lothaire, and received from his father-in-law the duchy of Saxony. He subsequently disputed the crown of Germany with Conrad III.; was deprived of most of his possessions, and was put under the ban of the empire (1139). His brother, Count Guelph of Altorf, guardian of the famous Henry the Lion, his nephew, the son of Henry the Haughty, at that time but 10 years

of age, endeavored to recover for his ward possession of the confiscated duchies. Bavaria had been bestowed upon Leopold of Austria; Saxony upon Albert the Bear, of Brandenburg. The Saxons demanded a Guelphic prince; and Albert, at the emperor's desire, formally resigned the duchy to the youthful heir. In Bavaria Count Guelph was less successful. He was put under the ban of the empire as a rebel (1140), but ventured nevertheless to give battle to Conrad's troops, near Weinsberg, and was defeated. In this action were first heard those famous battle cries, which afterward became the most noted in Europe: "Strike for the Guelphs;" "Strike for the Ghibellines." Count Guelph became subsequently reconciled with the emperor, and accompanied him upon his bootless crusade. The wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, originating thus, soon became of much wider political consequence. In Germany they were speedily appeased, as we have seen; but they raged long after in Italy. Throughout the peninsula the family of the Guelphs found partisans everywhere weary of the yoke of the German emperors. The pope, irritated by German opposition in the matter of the investitures, declared for the Guelphs. The Lombard cities formed their league in favor of the Guelphic princes, while a similar league, under the patronage especially of Pavia, declared for the Hohenstauffen, by this time better known as the Ghibellines. The latter prevailed for many years. The emperor Frederic Barbarossa, notwithstanding the efforts of the indefatigable pope Alexander III., took Milan, and reduced the whole of Lombardy. The contest was resumed under Frederic II., who, after some successes, was dethroned. His grandson, Conradin, was the last of the race of Hohenstauffen. The Ghibellines had rallied about this unfortunate prince, who, at the age of 16, was beheaded at Naples by order of his perfidious enemy, Charles of Anjou (1268). The Guelphs meanwhile had been driven from both of their German duchies. The grandson of Henry the Lion, Otho (surnamed the Child), had done homage to Frederic II. in 1235. He had been thereafter created by this emperor duke of Brunswick, and held some remnant of his ancestors' estates, as fiefs of the empire. From him are descended the reigning houses of England, Hanover, and Brunswick. Twenty years later the contest became but a private feud of various Italian factions; of families sometimes in the same city. In 1259 the marquess of Este, a Guelph, triumphed over a Ghibelline faction of Verona, headed by Ezzelino the Ferocious. This nobleman, the third seignior of Romano of his name, was born at Onara in 1194, and was concerned almost from boyhood in the quarrels of his family with the house of Este. He became podesta of Verona, and having declared for the emperor Frederic II. in his war with the Lombards, was rewarded with the government of Padua, which he resolved to make the foundation of an independent state. He conquered Vicenza, Verona, Fel

tre, Belluno, and Bassano in rapid succession, exterminated the noblest families of his opponents, and acquired by his cruelties the title of the "Scourge of God." Over 50,000 persons are said to have perished by his order in prison or on the scaffold. At length a powerful coalition was formed against him, and having been taken in battle, after receiving a wound in the head, he refused all aliment, medicine, and consolation, and tore off the bandage from his wound in order to hasten his death. His brother Alberic was captured Aug. 25, 1260, and put to death with great torture. With him ended the family of Ezzelino da Romano. At Milan, in 1277, the Torriani, Guelphic chiefs, were compelled to surrender power to the Viscontis, representing the Ghibellines. At Florence, in 1258, Silvester de' Medici, of a Guelphic faction, known then as the whites (bianchi) against the blacks (neri), by which name the Ghibellines had come to be designated, deprived the family of the Uberti of their power, and gave to the Florentines a form of republican government. Pisa, after a disastrous war with Genoa, fell under the domination of the Guelphs in 1284. The last of the Roman tribunes, Cola di Rienzi, recovered momentary power for the Guelphs in 1347. Rome had for years vacillated between oligarchy and democracy, Ghibellines and Guelphs, as those factions were now designated. In general the former were partisans of imperial and feudal hierarchy; the latter of the church and national independence. Their contests, after desolating Italy for 400 years, yielded at length in some degree to the effects of self-exhaustion. The French invasion of 1495 was mainly instrumental, however, in giving diversion to the national mind, and interrupting a party spirit unsurpassed in the histories of obstinate and cruel domestic wars. In honor of the Guelphic founders of the house of Brunswick-Hanover, there was established in 1815 by the Hanoverian sovereign (the prince regent of England) an order of knighthood, known as the Guelphic order of Hanover. The insignia are a cross of gold, bearing a medallion, on the red field of which is a silver horse upon a green mound (sinople); the motto is: Nec aspera terrent.

GUERCINO. See BARBIERI. GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND, one of the principal representatives of the old Lutheran school of theology, born in Wettin, Feb. 23, 1803. He was graduated at the university of Halle, and appointed professor there in 1829. Next to Scheibel of Breslau, he was the most influential opponent of the union between the Protestant churches in Prussia, and of the new agenda or liturgy which the government had introduced into the services of the church. He was consequently dismissed from the university in 1835, officiated during 3 years as preacher of the old Lutheran congregation in Halle, and was not permitted to resume his academical functions until 1840. He has edited since that year the Zeitschrift für Lutherische Theologie, in concert with Rudel

bach.

His principal works are: Historischkritische Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1843), the 2d part of which appeared in Leipsic in 1854 under the title of Gesammtgeschichte des Neuen Testaments, oder Neutestamentliche Isagogik; Allgemeine Christliche Symbolik (2d ed. 1846); Lehrbuch der Christlichen Archäologie (1847); Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte (7th ed. 1849). The last named work is in course of translation by Prof. Shedd (1 vol. 8vo. published, Andover, 1857).

GUERICKE, OTTO VON, a German experimental philosopher, born in Magdeburg, Nov. 20, 1602, died in Hamburg, May 11, 1686. After a long residence in some of the chief university towns of Europe, where he studied law and various branches of science, he returned to Magdeburg, of which city he was for nearly 40 years burgomaster. As a natural philosopher he is chiefly known by his discoveries as to the nature and effects of air. In 1650 he invented the air pump, subsequently perfected by Robert Boyle and others, and which in 1654 he exhibited at the diet at Ratisbon to the emperor Ferdinand III. and the great dignitaries of the empire. He illustrated the force of atmospheric pressure by fitting together two hollow brass hemispheres, which, after the air within them had been exhausted, could not be pulled apart by the force of many horses. The air pump used on this occasion is still preserved in the museum of Berlin. He also invented a species of barometer. As an astronomer he was one of the first to express the opinion that the return of comets might be calculated. He published several treatises in natural philosophy, the principal of which, Ezperimenta Nova, ut vocant Magdeburgica, &c. (Amsterdam, 1672), contains an account of his experiments on a vacuum.

GUERILLA (Sp. guerrilla, little war), a kind of desultory warfare carried on by the local population uninstructed in the training of regular troops. This sort of war is termed irregular, though it must not be regarded as devoid of organization and system; that word being used to distinguish the combatants under this category from those of the permanent armies. Discipline and obedience are maintained with rigor, and punishments are summary and severe; the personal influence, example, and orders of the chief supersede in a great measure the military code. A well wooded and undulated country is best adapted to such warfare. Spain is especially remarkable for this style of defensive home fighting; it was introduced there by Quintus Sertorius when a fugitive and proscript from Rome. The population of Spain, being favorable to Sertorius, became willing and apt pupils; they furnished him with accurate intelligence of every movement of the great Roman generals Pompey and Metellus, by whom he could never be brought to fight a pitched battle, though he surprised, worried, and destroyed in detail their legions. During the Peninsular war the Spanish guerillas did essential service to the English army by cut

ting off French convoys, couriers, &c. The great modern master of guerilla warfare, Zumalacarregui, first raised the Carlist cause to importance by this method of warfare in the Basque provinces, and he performed the unusual feat of organizing out of his irregulars some very good troops of the line. When a party of his guerillas was very hard pressed by the superior forces of the enemy, it would disperse and mingle in the peaceful and agricultural occupations of the peasantry; and so soon as the tempest had blown over, it would reappear. Such a system can only be carried on when the rural population is devoted to the cause. The operations of Abd el Kader against the French in Algeria, and those of Shamyl against the Russians in the Caucasus, partake of this character. Insurrectionary improvised combats of the inhabitants from behind barricades in cities must not be confounded with guerilla warfare; neither must the manoeuvring of light infantry be so mistaken, nor the war by small detached columns of regulars; because, though the men and the detachments are comparatively isolated and independent, both modes are mere modifications of the movements of trained troops.

GUÉRIN. I. JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN, a French painter, born in Toulon, March 25, 1783, died in Paris, Jan. 16, 1855. He was the son of a locksmith, and at first made a living as a workman, devoting meanwhile all his leisure hours to drawing. Having saved enough money to enable him to go to Paris, he accepted a menial office in the studio of Gérard, where he secretly executed a large picture, "Cain after the Death of Abel," which was greatly admired at the exhibition of 1812, and purchased by the government. Among his paintings, some of which are mythological, while most of them are of a religious character, are the "Descent from the Cross," which obtained a gold medal in 1817, and was presented to the Roman Catholic cathedral in Baltimore, U. S., by Louis XVIII.; "Anchises and Venus," purchased by the French government in 1822; "Adam and Eve expelled from the Garden of Eden," his best performance, and one of the masterpieces of the French school. He left also many portraits which are highly valued; those of Charles X. and Lamennais among the number. II. PIERRE NARCISSE, a French painter, born in Paris, May 18, 1774, died in Rome, July 16, 1833. He was a pupil of Regnault, and had a very imperfect education in his art and very little substantial merit; but his happy selection and dramatic treatment of subjects rendered him popular. His "Marcus Sextus returning from Exile," exhibited in 1800, at a time when so many émigrés were permitted to return to France, created a great sensation. His "Phædra and Hippolytus" was scarcely less successful in 1802. His subsequent works were, however, less popular.

GUERNSEY, the westernmost of the Channel or Anglo-Norman islands, belonging to Great Britain, and lying in the English channel, 28 m. from the N. W. coast of France, and 68 m. from

England, between lat. 49° 24′ and 49° 33' N., and long. 2° 32' and 2° 48′ W.; area, 16,000 acres; pop. in 1851, 29,757. It is of triangular form, 9 m. in length and from 3 to 4 in breadth. The surface toward the N. is low and level, but toward the S. is comparatively hilly and elevated. The coast is deeply indented with excellent harbors, and in some places rises into bold precipitous cliffs 270 feet high. The climate, though variable, is temperate and healthy. The soil is fertile, but owing to the minute subdivision of property and the want of capital, agriculture is generally in a backward state. The principal productions are wheat, barley, oats, rye, potatoes, fruit, cider, wine, butter, pigs, and cattle. The trade of this island is rapidly declining. The exports are mostly apples, cider, wine, potatoes, and granite; the imports, corn, flour, manufactures, sugar, coffee, &c. The former, in Guernsey, Jersey, &c., amounted in 1856 to £294,678, and the latter to £713,975. The inhabitants are a simple and thrifty race, and speak a dialect of that Norman French which has been obsolete for centuries save in these islands. The government is vested in a lieutenant-governor and the "states," which are composed of 37 officials, partly elected by the people and partly appointed by the crown. Capital, St. Peter Port.

GUERNSEY, an E. co. of Ohio, drained by branches of Muskingum river, and abounding in coal; area, 460 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 30,438. It has a hilly surface, with a soil of moderate fertility. The slopes afford good pasturage, and in many places are covered with vineyards from which wine is produced. The productions in 1850 were 217,275 bushels of wheat, 301,964 of oats, 682,757 of Indian corn, 16,260 tons of hay, 1,738,131 lbs. of tobacco, and 10,500 bushels of salt. There were 17 grist mills, 17 saw mills, 2 newspaper offices, 77 churches, and 8,135 pupils attending public schools. county was settled mainly by emigrants from Guernsey, and named from that island. It is traversed by the central Ohio railroad, connecting Columbus with Wheeling, Va. Capital, Cambridge.

The

GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO, an Italian author and politician, born in 1805, was a successful lawyer at Leghorn previous to the outbreak of the revolutionary movement of 1847 and 1848, in which he took a prominent part. Imprisoned for a short time in 1848, he had no sooner recovered his liberty than he placed himself in relation with Mazzini, Gioberti, and other agitators, founded a republican journal at Florence, was chosen a deputy to the national assembly of Tuscany, and appointed minister of the interior in Oct. 1848. After the departure of the grand duke from his capital (Feb. 7, 1849), Guerrazzi became a member, and in March the chief of the provisional government, which was overthrown in the following month. He was arrested April 14, and removed in June to the state prison of Volterra, where he was detained until July, 1853, when