1835); "Tales of the Border" (1835); and "Statistics of the West at the close of 1836" (Cincinnati, 1886), a new edition of which appeared under the title of "Notes on the Western States" (Philadelphia, 1838). During the presidential canvass of 1836, when Van Buren and Harrison were the candidates, he published a biography of the latter. He undertook with T. L. McKenney an elaborate and costly "History of the Indian Tribes" (3 vols., Philadelphia and Washington, 1838-'44), for which he furnished nearly all the text. The work consisted of 120 portraits of celebrated chiefs, each of which was accompanied by a memoir written from authentic original materials collected with great labor. It was published in expensive style, the price per copy being $120. The later publications of Judge Hall are the "Wilderness and the War Path" (New York, 1845); an address before the mercantile library association of Cincinnati (1846); a "Life of Thomas Posey," in Sparks's "American Biography" (2d series, vol. ix.); and the "Romance of Western History" (Cincinnati, 1857). His various writings, marked by amenity of sentiment and purity and liveliness of style, have contributed much to the intellectual improvement of the West. A uniform edition of his works appeared in 4 vols. in 1853. JOHN E., brother of the preceding, an American author, born in Dec. 1783, died June 11, 1829. He was educated at Princeton college, studied law, and began to practise in Baltimore in 1805. He was soon elected professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the university of Maryland. He wrote a biography of Dr. John Shaw, prefixed to an edition of his poems (1810), and prepared an edition of Wirt's "British Spy." He acted with the federalists, and was severely wounded in the Baltimore riot of 1811. From 1808 to 1817 he published the "American Law Journal" (6 vols., Philadelphia). Removing to Philadelphia, he became editor of the "Portfolio" in 1816, and among his contributions were the "Memoirs of Anacreon," which attracted much attention. In 1827 he edited the "Philadelphia Souvenir," and published "Memoirs of Eminent Persons," and in the same year resigned the editorship of the "Portfolio" on account of declining health. He edited also several legal works.

HALL, JAMES, an American geologist and palæontologist, born in Hingham, Mass., of English parents, in 1811. From 1831 to 1886 he pursued his studies under the direction of Amos Eaton, the distinguished professor and teacher of the natural sciences, at the Rensselaer school in Troy, N. Y. Being appointed one of the New York state geologists, he entered in 1837 upon the survey of the western district of the state. His report upon the geology of this district, published in 1843, forms one of the quarto volumes of the series devoted to the natural history of New York. The fossil remains with which the strata are filled attracted his special attention; they were carefully figured on wood, both by his own hand and by that of Mrs. Hall,

described in his reports, and accurately referred to the strata in which they occurred. This study, assiduously pursued, enabled him to trace out and identify the several palæozoic formations over their range throngh the western states, a work which he has prosecuted with distinguished ability. His labors in this department are principally embodied in the 3 volumes of the paleontology of New York, already published, which contain descriptions and illustrations of about 1,000 species of fossils from the lower and middle silurian rocks. It is upon this great work-the most comprehensive treatise on American paleontology ever published—that the fame of Prof. Hall is chiefly based. The 1st volume appeared in 1847, the 2d in 1852, and the 3d in 1859. In this the description of the fossils is carried up to the devonian period. Other volumes will be required to complete the work as proposed by the author, describing the fossils up to the coal formation, ai d also those of the American post-tertiary. In 1845 and 1846 he communicated to the American association the results of his investigations of the metamorphic formations found between the Hudson and Connecticut rivers, showing that they were the representatives of the older fossiliferous rocks of New York, distinguishable among themselves by their peculiar minerals, as the unaltered strata are by their fossils-views which he has subsequently often advanced. He investigated the geology of the distant western territories by means of agents sent at his own expense to the Mauvaises Terres, and by the study of the collections from the Mexican boundary survey submitted to him by Major Emory, and of others from other regions. He was thus led to the conclusion that the discrepancies observed in the distribution of the fauna of the cretaceous period are not owing, as was supposed, to climatic influence, but to the inequality of development of the strata in different localities. When in 1850 the progress of the state survey of New York was suspended by act of the legislature, Mr. Hall still continued his palæontological researches, collecting and describing the fossils of New York and other regions at his own expense. In 1855 he was invited to take this department of the Canadian survey under the direction of Sir William E. Logan. The state legislature, however, at this time arranging with him for the continuation and completion of the great work upon which he was employed, and being appointed state surveyer of Iowa in 1855, and of Wisconsin in 1857, his Canadian investigations were chiefly limited to the study of the graptolites, of which genus he has described 25 new species, throwing much new light upon the true form and mode of growth of these organisms. Of the Iowa report two volumes have been published by Messrs. Hall and Whitney. (See GEOLOGY, Iowa, and LEAD.) In the pursuits of Prof. Hall we notice a capacity of mind for two distinct classes of investigation, not often met with in the same individual. While devoting him

self to the study of the minute forms of organic structures, and discriminating between and classifying these with the utmost precision, he has also successfully traced out and arranged in their true order over vast areas the formations to which they belong; and still more in dynamic geology has investigated the forces to which these formations owe their existence where they are now met with. Thus he was led to the original theory respecting the elevation of mountain chains, of which a sketch is given at the close of the article GEOLOGY. In 1850 Mr. Hall was elected by the geological society of London one of its 50 foreign members, and in 1858 the same society conferred upon him the distinction of the Wollaston medal. He is a member of numerous European and American scientific societies, and has furnished many important papers to their "Transactions." For many of the government reports of the western surveys, the descriptions of the fossils collected are by Prof. Hall; as in the reports of Col. Fremont, of Major Stansbury, of the United States and Mexican boundary survey, and others.

HALL, JOSEPH, an English prelate and author, born in Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire, July 1, 1574, died in Higham, near Norwich, Sept. 8, 1656. He was educated at Cambridge, took holy orders, and, after several minor benefices, received the deanery of Worcester in 1617. He was in the following year a deputy to the synod of Dort, was made bishop of Exeter in 1627, and translated to the see of Norwich in 1641. In the latter year he joined with the bishops who protested against the validity of laws made during their forced absence from parliament, and was committed for a time to the tower. In 1643 his revenues were sequestrated and his personal property pillaged. His fervent piety, which exposed him to the charge of Puritanism, his opposition to the Arminianism of Laud, and his able maintenance of episcopacy during the ascendency of the Presbyterians, embroiled his life. From 1647 he lived on a small farm in Higham. Most of his works were practical and devotional. Of his prose writings, those most esteemed are his "Contemplations on the Historical Passages of the Holy Story" (3 vols., London, 1612-'15); "Characters of Virtues and Vices" (London, 1608); a Latin treatise, Mundus Alter et Idem (Hanover, 1607; translated into English by John Healey); and "Christian Meditations" (1640). His satires, entitled Virgidemiarum, Six Bookes" (London, 1597'8), were esteemed by Pope among the best poetry and the truest satire in the language, and were highly commended by Warton. According to Thomas Fuller, he " was commonly called our English Seneca for the pureness, plainness, and fulness of his style. Not unhappy at controversies, more happy at comments, very good in his character, better in his sermons, best of all in his meditations. A witty poet when young, a painful preacher and solid divine in his middle, a patient sufferer in his old age."

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HALL, LYMAN, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, born in Connecticut about 1731, died in Burke co., Ga., in Feb. 1791. He was graduated at Yale college in 1747, studied medicine, and removed in 1752 to South Carolina, and the same year to Sunbury, Ga., where he engaged in the practice of his profession. At the opening of the revolution he zealously espoused the cause of the colonies, and was influential in inducing Georgis to join the confederacy. In 1775 he was chosen a member of congress, and was annually reelected till 1780, at the close of which year he finally retired from the national legislature. When the British temporarily had possession of Georgia, they confiscated all his property. After their expulsion he was elected governor in 1783, and after holding this office for one term, retired from public life some 6 years before his death.

HALL, MARSHALL, an English physician, born in Basford, Nottinghamshire, in 1790, died in Brighton, Aug. 11, 1857. At the age of 19 he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where he prosecuted his studies in medicine and chem istry with an eagerness and speculative spirit which the accepted doctrines of neither science could satisfy. In the latter department he pointed out the distinction between all chemical bodies, which ruled their chemical affinities, caused by the presence or absence of oxygen. From his study at this time of morbid anatomy in close connection with clinical medicine resulted his celebrated "Treatise on Diagnosis." Having taken his degree of M.D. in 1812, he officiated for 2 years as house physician at the royal infirmary in Edinburgh, visited the medical schools of Paris, Berlin, and Göttingen, and settled in Nottingham in 1815. He soon obtained a large and lucrative practice, and was appointed physician to the general hospital of the city. At the same time he became a valuable contributor to the literature of his profession His first work of importance, the "Treatise on Diagnosis," published in 1817, is described by a recent authority as "comprehensive, lucid, exact, and trustworthy, having in the main stood the test of 40 years' trial." At this period also he made his researches into the effects of the loss of blood, which resulted in drawing the distinc tion between inflammation and irritation, and, by educing practical rules for treatment and diagnosis, in revolutionizing the practice of medicine. He published various other works evincing his activity as an observer, the most important of which was the "Commentaries on various Diseases peculiar to Women" (London, 1827), which is still a standard book of reference. In 1826 he removed to London, where he prosecuted his original researches with unabated vigor. After establishing the important physiological rule that the capillary vessels are distinct in structure and function from the smallest arteries or veins, he proceeded to the discoveries concerning the nervous system which are considered the crowning act of his profes sional life. In the language of a writer in the

"Lancet:" "The establishment of the reflex functions of the spinal cord, in short, the whole of the excito-motor physiology of the nervous system, is the sole work of Dr. Marshall Hall. And not only this, but he has shown that there are in reality 3 great classes into which the various parts of the nervous system resolve themselves: the cerebral, or sentient-voluntary; the true spinal, or excito-motor; and the ganglionic. This was the real unravelling of that perplexed and tangled web which none had before been able to accomplish. The true idea of a nervous centre could never be said to have existed before the time of Marshall Hall." Notwithstanding the importance and prospective value of these discoveries, Dr. Hall's memoirs "On the True Spinal Marrow and the Excito-Motor System of Nerves" were deemed unworthy of publication by the royal society. The principal scientific bodies of Europe and America, however, fully appreciated his services to science; and beside being chosen a foreign associate of the royal academy of medicine at Paris, he had the rare honor of an election by an almost unanimous vote into the institute of France. In 1853-4 he visited the United States, Canada, and Cuba, and in every part of the two former countries was received with distinction by his professional brethren. One of the fruits of this tour was a work entitled "The Twofold Slavery of the United States," in which he has set forth a plan for the self-emancipation of the slaves. Among his most important and practical discoveries must be mentioned the method, now known by his name, for treating asphyxia, the superiority of which over that formerly in use has been tested by innumerable examples in many parts of the world. (See ASPHYXIA.) To the last his mental faculties were in full vigor, and only 2 months before his death he was engaged in preparing for publication in the "Lancet" a series of papers entitled "The Complete Physiology of the Nervous System." In addition to the works already mentioned, he published "Principles of the Theory and Practice of Medicine" (London, 8vo., 1837); "Observations and Suggestions in Medicine" (2 vols. 8vo.); and several important treatises on the nervous system.

HALL, ROBERT, an English preacher and author, born in Arnsby, Leicestershire (where his father was pastor of a Baptist congregation), May 2, 1764, died in Bristol, Feb. 21, 1831. He was the youngest of 14 children. At 5 years of age he was noted for a passionate fondness for reading, and would often lie for hours on the grass, with his books about him, till compelled by the shades of evening to enter the house. While still a boy his favorite works were Edwards "On the Will" and Butler's "Analogy," which he was able to analyze and intelligently discuss at 9 years of age. When 11 years old his conscientious master informed his father that he was entirely unable to keep up with his young pupil; and he was accordingly placed where he could enjoy adVOL. VIII.-42

vantages corresponding with his wonderful talents. At the age of 16 he was set apart to the office of the ministry; and, to prepare himself more fully for its work, soon entered the university of Aberdeen, where he enjoyed the teachings of Beattie and Campbell, and became the friend of Mackintosh. Of this period it is that Mackintosh tells us that he was "fascinated by the brilliancy and acumen of Hall, in love with his cordiality and ardor, and awe-struck by the transparency of his conduct and the purity of his principles," and that "from his discussions with him, he learned more as to principle than from all the books he ever read;" while Hall, on the other hand, through life reiterated the opinion that Mackintosh "possessed an intellect more analogous to that of Bacon than any person of modern times." In 1783, while still continuing his studies at Aberdeen, he became assistant pastor of Broadmead church in Bristol. Here his extraordicary powers became more and more manifest, and the church, when he preached, was crowded with the most distinguished auditors. In 1790 he removed to Cambridge, where he became successor to the Rev. Mr. Robinson in the Baptist church; and here, by his elaborate and brilliantly eloquent discourses, he rose at once to the highest rank of British preachers. His discourses were listened to by crowds, including alike professors and students; while in private life his conversation was admired and sought by the most cultivated and intelligent. In Cambridge some of his principal pamphlets were published: his "Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom" (1791); his "Apology for the Freedom of the Press" (1793); his far-famed sermon on "Modern Infidelity" (1800); his "Reflections on War” (1802); and his "Sentiments suitable to the Present Crisis" (1803). These publications were called forth by the events of the French revolution, which sent its thrill to every village and hamlet of Great Britain; and as they were republished in repeated editions, their arguments and eloquence made a deep and lasting impression on the mind of the nation. These occasional discourses, however, prompted as they were by the political state of the country, are not to be regarded as specimens of his or dinary preaching. The latter, though marked by the same genius and eloquence, was eminently evangelical and instructive, enlarging the knowledge and quickening the faith and piety of his people, while his labors as a pastor were as unwearied as they were useful. In 1804, when at the height of his reputation, an acute disease of long standing so increased, that his mind for a time lost its balance, and he was. obliged to give up his congregation at Cambridge. On his recovery he was settled in Leicester, in the same church in which the celebrated Dr. Carey had once officiated, where his reputation for ability and eloquence rose even higher than before; and he was called in 1826 to a large and flourishing church in Bristol, the scene of his early labors. Here he con

tinued his ministry till the progress of his disease obliged him to suspend his toils. Mr. Hall was liberal in his views, and in favor of open communion. In person he was large, and of robust figure, with a countenance expressive of self-reliance and great intellectual power; his features were ordinarily calm and serious, but in his public efforts kindling, and at times "lighted up almost to a glare." He was an indefatigable student, a thorough scholar, a profound thinker, a faithful pastor, a childlike and humble Christian. No man of modern times has more steadily held the preeminence as a pulpit orator than Mr. Hall; and to no one has it been more universally conceded. Though suffering so intensely from the agony of disease, that for more than 20 years he was never able to pass an entire night in bed, and was often obliged, in a single night, to take 1,000 drops of laudanum, he never intermitted his studies or the labors of his ministry. "No man," says his physician, "ever, probably, went through more physical suffering; he was a fine example of the triumph of the higher powers of mind, exalted by religion, over the infirmities of the body." "Whoever," says Dugald Stewart, "wishes to see the English language in its perfection, must read the writings of that great divine Robert Hall. He combines the beauties of Johnson, Addison, and Burke, without their imperfections." His works, edited, with a memoir, by Olinthus Gregory, and with an estimate of his character as a preacher by John Foster, have been published both in England and America (6 vols. 8vo., London, 1831-'3).

HALL, ROBERT PLEASANTS, an American poet and lawyer, born in Chester district, S. C., Dec. 23, 1825, died in Macon, Ga., Dec. 4, 1854. In his 12th year he removed with his parents to Georgia, and was more distinguished for aptitude than diligence in his studies. He was admitted to the bar in 1848, and rapidly rose to distinction in his profession. For many years he had devoted his leisure to poetical composition, and he published in Charleston in 1848 a volume of "Poems by a South Carolinian." He removed in 1849 to Macon, Ga., where he enjoyed an eminent legal reputation till his death. His unpublished writings in prose and verse are numerous. They include a contemplative poem on "André Chénier;" a legend of the Dacotahs, entitled "Wenona ;" and the "Cherokee," descriptive of the scenery of upper Georgia. A memoir, with extracts from his writings, is contained in Miller's "Bench and Bar of Georgia” (Philadelphia, 1858).

HALL, SAMUEL CARTER, an English author and journalist, born in Topsham, Devonshire, in 1800. He was called to the bar at an early age, but seems never to have practised law. Commencing his career as parliamentary reporter for the "London Times," in 1824 he established and for many years edited the "Amulet," an illustrated annual, and succeeded Campbell as editor of the "New Monthly Magazine." As an editor of illustrated books he is

favorably known by his "Book of Gems," in 3 series, and more particularly by the "Book of British Ballads," one of the most popular publications of the day. His "Baronial Halls of England" and "Ireland," the latter the joint production of himself and his wife, are replete with antiquarian and legendary lore. Mr. Hall is also the editor of the London " Art Journal," a periodical for which his good taste and indus try have secured a wide circulation in England and America.-ANNA MARIA, whose family name was Fielding, wife of the preceding, and an authoress of note, born in Dublin in the early part of this century. At the age of 14 she accompanied her mother to England, and soon after was married to Samuel Carter Hall, at whose suggestion she published in 1829 her first work, "Sketches of Irish Character." To this suc ceeded a long list of novels, juvenile tales, sketches, and miscellaneous works, marked by a healthy moral tone and considerable taste and humor. Her delineations of Irish female character in "Lights and Shadows of Irish Life" (3 vols. 8vo., 1838), "Tales of the Irish Peasantry" (1840), and "Marian" (1840), are consid ered equal to those of Miss Edgeworth. In her historical romance, "The Buccaneer" (1832), she was one of the first to vindicate the char acter of Cromwell. She has written two suc cessful plays, "The French Refugee,” and “The Groves of Blarney." Among her most recent works are "Midsummer Eve" (1847), and “ Pilgrimages to English Shrines" (1850), both contributed to the "Art Journal."

HALL, SAMUEL READ, an American clergyman and educator, born in Croydon, N. H., Oct. 27, 1795. While he was yet young, his father removed to Guildhall, Vt., and after a few years to Rumford, Me., both at that time new settlements, and offering small advantages of school instruction. After his father's death in 1814 young Hall determined to become a teacher, and commenced at Rumford. He afterward had some academical tuition, and in 1822 taught sa academy at Fitchburg, Mass., and while residing there was licensed as a preacher of the Congre gational denomination. Receiving soon after an appointment from the Vermont missionary society as a domestic missionary, he removed to Concord, Vt., where in 1823 he organized the first school in the United States for the training of teachers. He maintained this school till 1830, when he was chosen principal of the English department of Phillips academy, Andover. In 1829 he assisted in the formation of the American institute of instruction, of which he has been since that time an active member. In 1887 he removed on account of his health to Plymouth, N. H., and commenced a teachers seminary there, which was largely attended, but was given up at the end of 3 years for the want of endowment. In 1840 he removed to Craftsbury, Vt., and there established a teachers' department, in connection with the academy, which he taught, wholly or partially, till 1846. He is the author of several works, the most

popular of which, his "Instructor's Manual, or Lectures on School Keeping," has passed through many editions. He now resides at Brownington, Vt.

HALLAM, HENRY, an English historical writer, born in Windsor in 1777, died in Penshurst, Kent, Jan. 21, 1859. His father was dean of Bristol, and he was educated at Eton college and the university of Oxford, where he was graduated in 1799. He pursued the study of the law, but never engaged to any extent in its practice. He was the personal and political friend of the distinguished liberal statesmen of his time, of Lords Althorp, Lansdowne, Brougham, and Russell, and Sir James Mackintosh, and was among the early contributors to the "Edinburgh Review." His articles in that journal gave him a recognized and distinguished place among the liberal and impartial thinkers and writers in England, in the first and second decades of this century. At length in 1818, being now 40 years of age, after mature preparation and laborious study, he gave to the world his first elaborate historical work. No writer of any great eminence had appeared in England, in this department, to keep up the succession of Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. It was therefore with some appearance of a revival of studies which had been neglected for a generation, that Mr. Hallam brought before the public his "View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages," in 2 vols. 4to. But this treatise, though a historical work, was not a history. Its professed object was not to narrate a course of events, but to exhibit, in a series of historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief subjects of interest in what are commonly called the middle ages. These subjects are, in the 1st volume, the history of France from the conquest of Clovis to the invasion of Naples by Charles VIII.; the feudal system, especially as it existed in France; the history of Italy, from the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty to the invasion of Naples by Charles VIII.; the history of Spain to the conquest of Granada; the history of Germany to the diet of Worms in 1495; the history of the Greeks and Saracens; and the history of the ecclesiastical power during the middle ages. In the 2d volume the history of the ecclesiastical power in the middle ages is continued, upon which follows the history of the constitution, under the heads of the Anglo-Saxon constitution, the Anglo-Norman constitution, and the English constitution; and the volume closes with a chapter on the state of society in Europe during the middle ages. It will be perceived, from the extensive range of his topics, all of which are treated with a profound knowledge of the facts, as well as with a spirit of enlightened and impartial criticism, that Mr. Hallam's researches have been pushed into many departments of medieval history, and that no ordinary skill was required to condense the result into two volumes. A work of this kind necessarily wants what may be called the epic attraction of a great historical composition in

the ordinary sense of the words; but for the philosophical student it has its counterbalancing advantages. The endless detail of facts in a work like Gibbon's, however skilfully narrated, is wearisome at the time, and soon escapes the memory, General results, institutions, prominent characters, and great events, are all that the ordinary powers of recollection can retain; and these are clearly stated and fully illustrated by Mr. Hallam. He does not equal either of the three great historians of the last century in style; but his learning is more select and critical than Gibbon's; his facts are more to be relied on and his judgment more impartial than Hume's; and in all the qualities of a historical writer of the first class, with the exception perhaps of the easy flow of language, he excels Robertson. Mr. Hallam modestly states that he had more in view the instruction of the young than the improvement of mature readers. This work rose at once to the rank of a standard treatise, and after a lapse of 30 years a supplemental volume was published by Mr. Hallam, presenting in a series of annotations the result of his studies since its first appearance, with the advantage of the labors of the great French historical writers who had appeared in the interval, Sismondi, Michelet, and Guizot, with their associates of somewhat lower though highly respectable rank, Thierry, Fauriel, and Raynouard. His obligations to several historical writers in England, or writers illustrating historical subjects-Sir Francis Palgrave, Allen, Kemble, Spence, Starkie, Nicolas, and Wright -are also acknowledged. A just and beautiful compliment is also paid by Mr. Hallam, in the preface to this supplemental volume, to M. Guizot. After an interval of 9 years, Mr. Hallam published his second great work, "The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II." (2 vols. 4to., 1827). This work takes up the history of the British constitution where it was left in the 8th chapter of the "History of the Middle Ages." It was originally his intention to carry on the whole of this last named work, from the point where he left it, down to about the middle of the last century. Finding that this would be an enterprise of unwieldy dimensions and of labor beyond his strength, he satisfied himself with a continuation of the history of the constitution of his own country. He gives, however, a wide comprehension to the subject, making it include the establishment of the English church and the proceedings of the state with reference to dissenters. The work also contains two supplemental chapters on Scotland and Ireland. Mr. Hallam remarks, in reference to the general character of his work, that the "constitutional and general history of England at some periods necessarily coincide;" and this is peculiarly the case in regard to the reformation and the civil wars, which are treated in the most important chapters of this work. This second work of Mr. Hallam possessed the characteristic merits of the first, patience of research,