conditions. In a word, the municipal university is the only type of higher institution which can have adequate facilities for the scientific study of many of our most important school questions. With a sufficient staff of trained workers in this field, the value of the service which may be rendered to the city school system in this way is incalculable.

A college for teachers, therefore, is an indispensable bond of union between the municipal university and the city schools, and no "town and gown" conflict can seriously jeopardize the existence of a municipal university which duly recognizes its obligations to the city schools in the ways which we have pointed out.

A higher type of agency for the training of teachers for the city schools is made possible by the municipal university in cooperation with the city schools largely because this condition commands a higher type of worker in this field. It is impossible for any city to secure any large number of teachers having a preparation of the highest order without the establishment of a municipal university. On the other hand, where such a university is established, the arrangement which we have described for securing and maintaining a supply of teachers having superior preparation is brought about with an expenditure on the part of the board of education less in amount than would be necessary to maintain a first-class city normal school of the usual type.

Nearly all of the appointments to positions in the Cincinnati schools are now made from the preferred lists, and a majority of these are graduates from the local university, with professional training. There are now several hundred college graduates in the elementary schools. All occupying regular positions in the high schools are college graduates, a large number having master of arts degrees, and several being doctors of philosophy. At no distant date all teachers in the system will be college graduates, with professional training, or successful experience at the least.

The municipal university, therefore, best serves the city by serving the lower schools of the municipality. The lines of such service are many and important, but all of them bear fruit just in proportion as they bring about improvement in the teaching staff in these schools. In doing this the university is dependent upon the active cooperation and financial support of the city school authorities. With this gained, the highest type of professional training for teachers in city schools becomes possible. Broader scholarship as a foundation for such training can then supplant a lower order of scholarship and be a safeguard against a narrow pedantry. Instead of a model school for observation and practice, a whole system of real schools for this purpose then becomes available. Merit can then take the place of manipulation in securing appointment. Opportunities for growth

after appointment can then become manifold. Scientific research can then have a laboratory for separating truth from opinion, and individual differences in children can be duly respected. Vitalizing discussion can then prevent the dry rot of a deadening routine. These are the needs of the city schools, and these possibilities are a challenge of the city schools to the municipal university.

VI. CIVIC UNIVERSITIES IN GREAT BRITAIN.

By CHARLES A. COCKAYNE,

President of Toledo University (1910 to 1914).

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Great Britain had only seven universities, and in all of them the scholastic traditions of a much earlier period prevailed. Within the last 83 years 11 new universities and 6 more or less independent university colleges have sprung into being as if by magic. Seven of the new universities were organized in one decade, the first of the twentieth century-Birmingham, Leeds, Liverpool, Sheffield, Bristol, the National University of Ireland, and the University of Belfast.

The creation of the new institutions was welcomed and encouraged by the less conservative educators of the old centers. In fact the success of the younger institutions is due in large measure to the fact that they were manned by men from Oxford and Cambridge who believed in extending the privileges of higher education. This attitude is typically expressed by Mark Pattison, a former rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. He said that the multiplication of exhibitions at Oxford

can never "extend" the university to a newer and lower class of English society. If this is to be done, the expensiveness must be attacked in its causes. Instead of subsidizing the poor student up to the level of our expenses, we ought to bring down the expenses to the level of the poor. It is idle to say we can not.

And again:

Toward the meritorious working institutions for higher education which are rising up in our centers of population at Manchester, Liverpool, and Birmingham, fear, jealousy, or contempt are not the sentiments we can feel. Let us wish them all success in their efforts in the common cause, and give them sympathy, and, if in our power so to do, aid.

There was no misunderstanding as to the mission of the new institutions. They were to meet the practical need for trained citizens. But this keen realization of the need for education that should be practical was combined with the larger ideal of the professional educator, and this has saved the civic universities from pursuing courses too narrowly utilitarian. It is true that trade schools and mechanics' institutes were organized to meet an immediate need in the most direct way possible, but the universities were directed

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by a loftier ideal. This university conception finds expression in the following words of Pattison:

Mental enlargement we know to be self-valuable, not useful; but if it can be introduced to notice under color of being useful in life, so be it, so only it is introduced. The difficulty is to get the thing recognized at all by those who have it not. Cleverness, talent, skill, fluency, memory, all these are understood and rated in the market. A cultivated mind, just because it is above all price, is apt to be overlooked altogether. It argues some discernment, and a considerable degree of education, in a society in which such gifts are even appreciated as useful. And let it once establish itself, even under false pretenses, such is its marvelous ascendency, that, like refined manners, it will conquer and propagate and extend itself by sympathy, by imitation, above all by education.

With no prescribed formula to follow, the new civic universities have unanimously adopted this ideal. While they have sought to meet the general demand for instruction in technical subjects and the needs of local industries in particular, they have, in every instance, combined with this work instruction in the usual courses in the arts and letters. The provisions of the charter of the University of Liverpool may be taken as typical. According to this charter, it is the purpose of the university to offer

(a) Instruction and teaching in every faculty.

(b) Such instruction in all branches of education as may enable students to become proficient in and qualify for degrees, diplomas, and certificates in arts, science, medicine, law, engineering, and all other branches of knowledge.

(c) Such instruction, whether theoretical, technical, artistic, or otherwise, as may may be of service to persons engaged in, or about to engage in, education, or in the commerce, manufactures, industrial or artistic pursuits of the city of Liverpool, and the adjacent counties and districts.

(d) Facilities for the prosecution of original research in arts, science, medicine, law, engineering, and all other branches of knowledge.

(e) Such fellowships, scholarships, exhibitions, prizes, and rewards, and pecuniary and other aids as shall facilitate or encourage proficiency in the subjects taught in the university, and also original research in all such subjects.

(ƒ) Such extra university instruction and teaching as may be sanctioned by ordi

nances.

All of the civic universities have faculties of arts and of pure science, of engineering or applied science, and of medicine. Four of them have faculties of law, and several have faculties of music, commerce, theology, education, agriculture, and pharmacy. Most of the universities are coeducational, and most of them have evening as well as day courses. All of the universities carry on extension work. At Liverpool and Sheffield the extension work includes not only lectures, but also tutorial classes organized for the benefit of working people who can not attend regular university courses, but who wish to do systematic work in advanced subjects. At Sheffield tutorial classes have been organized in industrial history, economics, and philosophy. The largest branch of extension lecturing at Leeds has been in agriculture, horticulture, farriery, dairy work, and poultry

keeping. Under the supervision of the extension lecturers, demonstration gardens are kept.

Each university studies the needs of the city and county in which it is located and endeavors to meet these by offering appropriate courses. Thus, the university college at Nottingham provides courses in the manufacture of lace and hosiery; the University of Sheffield has developed a strong department in the metallurgy of iron and steel; and the University of Leeds has made a specialty of courses in subjects that pertain to the leather and textile industries and to dyeing. The influence of the civic university is not limited to the municipality, but extends to the surrounding counties, very much as an industry or business of a city will dominate the lesser centers in surrounding territory. It has been found that from 60 to 100 per cent of the students attending the civic universities come from within a radius of 30 miles of the institution. In return for this local service, each university receives financial support both from the municipality in which it is located and from the counties reached by the university.

Certain of the municipalities provide a number of free scholarships in their universities for their own residents, and grant additional funds for maintenance not to exceed £30 in each instance. The municipalities are authorized by law to fix a tax of 1 penny for university purposes, and in many cases this rate is granted. The local support given by cities and counties to their own civic universities varies from 5.1 per cent to 29.6 per cent of the total income of the institution. The largest local grant for the year 1910-11 was given to the University of Leeds and amounted to £16,460. As a rule, the parliamentary grants have exceeded those given by the local authorities, and have varied from 23.1 per cent to 40.3 per cent of the total income. Both Federal and local authorities are represented on the governing boards known as the Courts of Governors. Representation on the courts has also been extended to manufacturers or workingmen's associations which contribute toward the maintenance of the university.

Most of the universities maintain dormitories or hostels where the students may secure board and room at reasonable cost. Moreover, these dormitories afford opportunity for the promotion of a community life among the students, and this is regarded as a very important factor in fostering the larger influence of the university.

The tendency to form local independent universities in the larger cities was not without its opponents. When the Victoria University was formed at Manchester on the basis of Owens College, it admitted the University College of Liverpool and the Yorkshire College of Leeds as constituent colleges. Manchester had always desired to have its own university, but the organization of the Victoria Uni

versity with constituent colleges in three different cities introduced the federal idea. The application of Birmingham in 1901 for a charter to create an independent local university out of the Mason University College revived interest in the movement to have an independent university at Manchester. A movement was also started in Liverpool to establish a local university independent of the Victoria University. This effort to dissolve the Victoria University was opposed by the college at Leeds. The vice chancellor of Leeds, Sir Nathan Bodington, addressing a meeting of the governors, said that he and many others felt—

that the multiplication of universities would be detrimental to the best interests of education and that universities in separate towns would not be likely to acquire the dignity and prestige which a university with a local sphere corresponding to it would have, and would not be able to speak in all those matters on which the action of the university in reference to the State was becoming so important, such as inspection and examination of schools, with anything like the weight of an undivided university.

Fear was expressed that

with a great northern university, a great midland university, and a London university they would have strength in the future, but if, outside Oxford and Cambridge, they were going to have seven or eight new universities, nearly all of them connected with single cities, that, he thought, would be a cause of weakness to university movements of the future.

The dissolution occurred, however, and out of the Victoria University three independent civic universities were formed and were known as the Universities of Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds. The effect of this action was that it stimulated local interest to an unusual degree, and the new civic universities thus formed continued to expand under the increased local support that was given. When asked five years later to give his opinion of the federal idea for English universities, Sir Nathan Bodington declared emphatically in favor of the civic plan.

With the establishment of the National University of Ireland in 1910 the Federal idea was again put into practice. The National University was formed with three constituent colleges, the University College, Dublin, and the Queen's Colleges of Cork and Galway. But already a demand has been made that these colleges be developed into independent local universities.

The civic university is the characteristic university of Great Britain to-day. If the movement now in process continues, it will not be many years before the university colleges now at Nottingham, Reading, Southampton, and Dundee; the three constituent colleges of the Universities of Wales, Aberystwyth, Bangor, and Cardiff; and the institutions at Dublin, Cork, Galway, and Belfast will be converted into independent civic universities. If it be asserted that