the stranger. Whatever topic the objects before them suggested, whether the theme was architecture or antiquities, some obscure passage in ecclesiastical history, or some question respecting the life of a saint, he touched it as with a sunbeam. His information appeared universal; his mind, clear intellect, without one particle of ignorance. A few minutes after their separation, the clergyman was met hurrying through the street. 'I have had,' said he, "quite an adI have been conversing for this half hour past with a man of the most extraordinary powers of mind and extent of information which it has ever been my fortune to meet with; and I am now going to the inn, to ascertain, if possible, who this stranger is.'"'

venture.

Goldsmith, Retaliation.

Here lies our good Edmund, whose genius was such,
We scarcely can praise it or blame it too much;
Who, born for the universe, narrowed his mind,
And to party gave up what was meant for mankind;
Though fraught with all learning, yet straining his throat}
To persuade Tommy Townshend to lend him a vote;
Who, too deep for his hearers, still went on refining,
And thought of convincing, while they thought of dining;
Though equal to all things, for all things unfit:
Too nice for a statesman, too proud for a wit,
For a patriot too cold, for a drudge disobedient,
And too fond of the right to pursue the expedient
In short, 'twas his fate, unemployed, or in place, sir,
To eat mutton cold, and cut blocks with a razor.

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS AND

STUDENTS

THE study of a piece of literature, as distinguished from cursory reading of it, may be directed to either one of two principal ends-interpretation, or criticism. The object of interpretation is the understanding of the work,—as a whole, in its organism, and in its details. The object of criticism is the judgment of the work, with reference both to its merits and defects. The object of both interpretation and criticism is intelligent admiration-admiration of that, and that alone, which is truly and eternally admirable.

Whatever study concerns itself with either of these two ends, interpretation or criticism, is literary study. That which is directed to other ends, or to no particular ends, may be useful in its way, and with reference to its own purposes, but has no right to be considered literary study.

The problem of literary teaching consists in the apportionment and adjustment to one another of the various forms of interpretation and criticism. For its solution no precise rules can be given; yet one statement can be made with confidence— that the ambitious, but untrained and inexperienced, teacher is likely to fall into one of two cardinal and opposite errors : either he will aim at an analysis too particularistic, and lose sight of the whole in a consideration of details or constituent parts; or he will indulge in a synthesis too large, too vague, possibly too sentimental, and in any case not sufficiently built up and elaborated by and with his pupils.

To return to the two main divisions of interpretation and criticism. Interpretation is basic, and in its nature precedes criticism. Criticism is supplementary, but indispensable to any literary culture which aspires to thoroughness. Interpretation involves the making clear to oneself of the meaning

and function of the various constituent elements of a given piece of literature, and of the piece of literature as a whole. These constituent elements are such as words, sentences, and paragraphs; the organic divisions of a work of literary art, such as the Exordium, Statement of Facts, Proof, etc., of an oration; quotations or allusions; and figures of speech. On each of these attention should be bestowed; and to each regard has been paid in the Notes to this book. What has been done in the Notes, however, has been mainly suggestive, and the pupil should be required-and encouraged to do much more for himself, the results of his inquiries being tested in the class-room.

Criticism, from its very nature, implies comparison-comparison with principles assumed or deduced; comparison with other productions of the same class; or, with respect to the opinions enounced by the author, comparison with the statements or opinions of other persons worthy of credence or respect. Thus the structure of Burke's speech might be studied with reference to its conformity or non-conformity to principles deduced from the practice of the ancients, or the speech might be systematically compared with other eminent examples of its class, ancient or modern, and its superiority or inferiority demonstrated. The style might be examined with respect to various qualities, and its specific merits determined. All information directly tending to confirm or disprove the statements, assumptions, or conclusions propounded by Burke would also be valuable in its bearing upon criticism, since it would increase the ability of the student to determine the trustworthiness of Burke as a guide. Finally, the estimates thus formed by the student might be carefully compared with those expressed by critics of established reputation, both among Burke's contemporaries and those of subsequent date.

The student, and at all events the teacher, is strongly advised to go through the Introduction and Notes, classifying the matter according as it bears upon interpretation or criticism, and, under each of these two heads, according to the particular subdivision which is illustrated. If the teacher has once done this with care, he will scarcely need specific suggestions as to how the book should be used.

Both interpretation and criticism, at least in the case of a masterwork like Burke's Speech on Conciliation, demand strenuous exercise of the intellectual faculties, as well as continual appeals to the moral nature. The combination of these two kinds of study ought to strengthen the reasoning powers, develop the imagination, cultivate the nobler sensibilities, and fortify the character.

As to the most helpful books, the Introduction and Notes, considered in conjunction with the Index, will afford many useful hints. It may be added, however, that the teacher who desires to be thoroughly equipped for dealing with Burke's American speeches will do well to have at hand the Annual Register, the Parliamentary History, and the Statutes at Large. No compilations from these sources, not even the best, can take their place; for nothing else can convey such a sense of personal familiarity with the actors in this momentous epoch of English history, and of the motives and passions by which they were actuated; nothing else will insure an acquaintance, no less desirable because it is rare, with the decrees and other public papers in which their political wisdom was formulated. If these volumes are inaccessible, Lecky's England in the Eighteenth Century and Bancroft's History of the United States will measurably serve as substitutes. From all these I have quoted freely, but a connected view of events and their causes can hardly be obtained through the medium of extracts, however copious.

The specimen examination papers that follow will serve to illustrate the principles here laid down, and may be taken as types of those by which the instructor should test the student's progress, as he slowly and critically masters the substance, the method, and the style of the speech.

SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS

I

"REFINED policy ever has been the parent of confusion, and ever will be so, as long as the world endures. Plain good intention, which is as easily discovered at the first view as frauä is surely detected at last, is, let me say, of no mean force in the government of mankind. Genuine simplicity of heart is a healing and cementing principle. My plan, therefore, being formed upon the most simple grounds imaginable, may disappoint some people when they hear it. It has nothing to recommend it to the pruriency of curious ears. nothing at all new and captivating in it. It has nothing of the splendour of the project which has been lately laid upon your table by the Noble Lord in the Blue Ribbon.'

There is

1. What were the admirable traits in the character of this "Noble Lord"? Why does not history hold him in greater honour? Give reasons for your opinion.

66

2. Describe the " "project" referred to. In what did its 'splendour" consist? On what grounds did Burke criticize

it?

3. Wherein does Burke think his own plan preferable to that of the "Noble Lord"? If he preferred his own, why does he here seek to disparage it?

4. Summarize each of the resolutions comprised in Burke's plan.

5. In what division of the speech does this passage occur? What is the function of this division, according to the ancient rhetoricians, and how far does Burke conform to their views?

6. Give a list of the words in the passage which Burke evidently employs in order to awaken unfavourable ideas in the hearer's mind. State the precise effect of each of these words.