portrait painter; Pettenkofen and Jettel, two very original landscapists; a Tchèque, named Brosik, who is a really earnest historical painter, far superior to the Polish Matejko; and a clever Italian imitator of Meissonier's, Tito Lessi. Another good private exhibition was that of Raffaelli, the painter of the outskirts of Paris and of the workmen and small householders who inhabit them. Raffaelli has sometimes been confounded with the impressionists. As a matter of fact he has nothing in common with them. His drawing is very careful, and his painting somewhat dry. He is distinguished by the delicacy of his landscape, and by the overpowering truthfulness of the brutalized or abject types he prefers to paint. His theory is no less opposed to that of the impressionists than his execution. For the impressionists any subject is good enough. It is only a question of reproducing something in Nature as exactly as possible; it is not necessary to put any soul into it. Raffaelli would have nothing painted but what is characteristic; the painter is to be a thought-reader. In the dissertation with which he has prefaced his catalogue he identifies the beautiful with the characteristic, and poses as the inventor of a new ideal, which, by a needless barbarism, he calls "Le beau caractériste "-the characterizing beautiful! Shall I speak of those other tragedies and comedies which have been acted outside the theatre, and which all Paris has been to see? These little agitations are so fugitive that in a month's time every trace of them is lost. For nearly a week nothing was heard of but Mrs. Mackay, the American millionairess, who destroyed a marvellous portrait of herself by Meissonier because he had not flattered her to her liking. The whole Parisian press took sides for or against Mrs. Mackay. Even she, however, had to make way for Campi, who had murdered an old man, and died on the scaffold without revealing his real name. The Intransigeant journalists, on the look-out for a paradox to amuse themselves with-though they are most of them blasés enough to be impervious to any known amusement-took up the cause of Campi, as representing the revolt of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie. All these things have their interest in Paris, and especially on the boulevard between the Madeleine and the Porte St. Martin. Outside those limits it all seems very artificial and very absurd. G. MONOD. CONTEMPORARY RECORDS. T I.-MODERN HISTORY. THE most remarkable instance of intellectual activity at the present day is undoubtedly afforded by Leopold von Ranke, who in extreme old age had the courage to undertake no smaller task than a Universal History. An English translation of the first volume of this important work has appeared almost simultaneously with the fourth volume in German. We are glad that the translation has been undertaken by so competent an historian as Mr. G. W. Prothero, who says in his preface that "it depends on the reception of this instalment by the public whether the translation will be continued." It is much to be hoped that the enterprise will be encouraged to proceed. The task of translation is laborious and meets with little acknowledgment. But the translator of Ranke deserves to be recognized as a pioneer of the scientific study of history. No historian has ever had so large a grasp as Ranke of the fundamental principles of history, or has laboured so assiduously to disentangle from a mass of details the permanent elements of human progress. He is not content with merely following the process of national development, but traces the interconnection of human affairs. After working at this problem in the history of Europe, especially in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the veteran historian resolved to devote his declining years to formulating his results. The value of his work cannot be over-estimated. A mind trained in historical criticism and a judgment practised in historical discrimination have been set to extract from the records of the past history of mankind the active principles of human progress. The result is a clear sketch, drawn by a firm hand, and full of suggestiveness. It is impossible within our limits to give any account of such a work. The first volume, which has been translated, extends to the fall of Greece. The fourth volume, which has just appeared, reaches from the founding of Constantinople to the rise of the Romano-German kingdoms, as Ranke calls them.t In it the author deals with a period which peculiarly calls for his mode of treatment. The great conceptions which have given their form to modern States-the conceptions of culture embodied in the Roman Empire, the religious ideas of the Christian Church, and the free spirit of the German tribes-all meet and react upon one another. The antagonisms, the transformations, the reconciliations of these elements are depicted *"Universal History. The Oldest Historical Group of Nations and the Greeks." By Leopold von Ranke. Edited by G. W. Prothero. London Kegan Paul. 1884. "Weltgeschichte." Von Leopold von Ranke. 10ter Theil. Das Kaiserthum in Constantinople und der Ursprung romanisch-germanischen Reichen. Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot. 1883. with such dignity as to give a dramatic interest to the process of historical analysis. Probably no other part of the work will be found so luminous as this, which shows how the foundations of modern Europe were laid. It is a great step from a Universal History to works on English localities. Two such books have recently appeared, which deserve notice for different reasons. Mrs. Roundell's "Cowdray is a good example of the interest which centres round an old historic house, and Mrs. Roundell has made it tell its tale to good advantage. No great historical event took place at Cowdray, nor were its owners men of remarkable character; yet any one who follows their fortunes will feel that he has learned much of English life in the past, and has more vivid impressions than he would have gained from a more serious history. In marked contrast with the spirited book of Mrs. Roundell is Mr. Armstrong's "History of Liddesdale and the Debateable Land."+ Mr. Armstrong has dealt with a part of Great Britain which is rich in history and legend. He has made a careful collection of documents, and has sought out every record dealing with his subject. But he has made no effort to present this mass of information in an intelligible form. He has adhered so closely to the special districts of which he treats that we are left without any clear conception of the state of the Borders as a whole. Mr. Armstrong has let slip an opportunity of dealing with a most interesting subject. In the wider field of historical literature England has not been very productive during the last few months. The publication by Mr. Gairdner of the late Dr. Brewer's introductions to his "Calendar of State Papers" will call general attention to their importance. Dr. Brewer not only arranged and extracted documents, but he saw their bearing and importance. It was natural for him, when full of his subject, to give expression to the general results of his researches. In the form of introductions, buried in large volumes of the Calendar, he really wrote a most valuable history of the early part of the reign of Henry VIII. No period of modern history is more obscure than the early part of the sixteenth century. The copiousness of literary material has rendered the task of the critic difficult in the extreme. The rapid growth of nationalities, the interconnection of European politics, and the constant intrigues of diplomacy give a bewildering sense of sudden life and uncertain movement. Dr. Brewer, with the documents before his eyes, has caught the enthusiasm inspired by contact with great plans. The period over which his labours extended, from 1509 to 1530, has embraced the career of Wolsey, who is practically the hero of Dr. Brewer's volumes. He stands out, for the first time, in due proportions, as the first of England's statesmen, in the modern acceptance of the term. Dr. Brewer shows us the tide of English life, and guides us through the politics of Europe. He, shows us how Wolsey raised England from a third-rate power to a Cowdray: the History of a great English House." By Mrs. C. Roundell. London: Bickers. 1884. + "History of Liddesdale, Eskdale, Ewesdale, Wauchopedale and the Debateable Land." By Robert Bruce Armstrong. Part I. From the Twelfth Century to 1530. Edinburgh: Douglas. 1883. "The Reign of Henry VIII. from his Accession to the Death of Wolsey." By the late J. S. Brewer. Edited by J. Gairdner. London: Longmans. 1884. position of commanding importance. He shows the strange current of events which brought about the breach with the Roman Church, and makes intelligible the complex character of Henry VIII., which must always remain one of the most wonderful in history. Dr. Brewer writes with strong individuality of style and expression. His work never flags, because it is penetrated with the movement of the age, which has entirely mastered him by the greatness of its issues for the future. His work is a worthy memorial of the arduous labours of a student's life. A little book by Mr. Picton, "Lessons from the Rise and Fall of the English Commonwealth,"* deserves notice as affording an excellent example of the way in which historical knowledge can be used for teaching political lessons. It consists of lectures addressed to a popular audience, dealing with modern problems from the point of view of an advanced Liberal. We do not propose to criticize Mr. Picton's political opinions; but it is impossible to read his utterances and not see in them the sobering results of historical study. There is a largeness of view, a distrust of partial methods, and a conception of the organic unity of society which are too often absent from political teaching. Mr. Picton has put forward in a striking way the results of a precocious experiment, which required more moral force to maintain it than the English people as a whole possessed. It is rather remarkable that in the course of the last few years the reign of Queen Anne and the political career of Bolingbroke should have attracted so much attention. It seems to show a desire to understand more clearly our system of party government, which is being so sorely tried. A new writer, Mr. Harrop, has made a valuable contribution to this subject. He has set himself to trace in the policy of Bolingbroke, the last effort of the monarchical system to reassert itself at the expense of parliamentary_government. His book is carefully written, and his criticism of Bolingbroke's policy is just. He has recognized the merits of Toryism as Bolingbroke conceived it, and has tried to judge it in reference to the events of its own time, and not to subsequent developments. He has made a decided contribution to our knowledge of the mode in which parliamentary government was established. But we cannot say that Mr. Harrop's book is light reading. He has little capacity for formulating clearly the results of the process which he is tracing, nor has he much facility of expression. As a criticism of Bolingbroke the book is too long; as a history of the time it is too short. The absence of dates, of headings, and other helps to the reader, makes it perplexing to a reader who is not familiar with the times. Mr. Harrop forms a great contrast to Mr. Schuyler, whose "Life of Peter the Great " has the merit of succeeding in giving a most readable and vivid account of a character and state of society which are difficult to realize. Mr. Schuyler has aimed at writing a full and clear narrative. He has chiefly used Russian sources, and consequently has reproduced before us the life of Russia, and has set his hero in his "Six Lectures." By J. Allanson Picton. London: Alexander & Shepheard. 1884. "Bolingbroke: a Political Study and Criticism." By Robert Harrop. London : Kegan Paul & Co. 1884. "Peter the Great. A Study of Historical Biography." By Eugene Schuyler. 2 vols. London: Sampson Low & Co. 1884. own surroundings. Mr. Schuyler is a biographer more than a historian. He does not look much either before or after, but gives a picturesque account of events. He does not even pause to reflect on the character of his hero, or on the results of his separate measures. But he makes Peter a living person both in his public and his private life. If he does not throw light on any of the political problems of the time, he certainly gives an admirable picture of their surroundings. He leaves others to speculate on the results to Russia and to Europe of the high-handed doings of the great Tsar; but he shows us the impetuosity, the brutality, the good sense, and the industry with which he laboured at his projects of every kind. We see how Russia ceased to be Oriental, and became European; but we see also how impossible it was that the conversion should be other than superficial. As a biography, Mr. Schuyler's book is excellent: it is written with a fulness and carefulness that will secure it an abiding reputation. In French literature we may notice the completion of M. Perrens' "Histoire de Florence," which in six volumes has only reached to the beginning of the domination of the Medici in 1433. It is needless to say that a book on such a scale is the result of long research, and is largely concerned with the whole of Italian history. It is founded on a careful criticism of authorities, and has devoted much attention to the origin of Florentine institutions. But we feel as if the spirit of Florentine life had evaporated in the process of this long analysis. M. Perrens shows more erudition than does the Marchese Capponi; but we feel as if he does not after all tell us so much that we wished to know. While we agree in the abstract with most of his views of Florentine politics, we lose the sense of Florence as the heart and head of Italy. Italian history is difficult to write, because the contribution of Italy to Europe is hard to define. Its political condition bears some resemblance to that of ancient Greece; yet its history does not illustrate in the same way the great permanent lessons of political science. Its development was not so rapid nor so sharply defined, and was traversed by many extraneous elements. While we respect M. Perrens' labours, we think that a briefer and more vivid sketch would have served its purpose better than his careful analysis. Italy is continually fruitful in the publication of new documents. Chief amongst those which have appeared lately are the unedited writings of Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II.† Though the published writings of Æneas are sufficiently voluminous, yet anything from his pen is valuable. He was the earliest man of letters in the modern acceptance of the term, and is always observant and lively. The historical value of the present volume consists in the publication of suppressed passages from his "Commentaries," which Pius II. wrote during his pontificate, but which were not published till nearly a century after his death. The editor, through deference to the dignity of the papal office, suppressed many of the biting sayings, the good stories, the free comments on the morals of his time, and the remarks on the characters of his cardinals, which Pius II. did not scruple to commit to paper. We now have a rare * Tome Sixième. Paris. Hachette. 1883. + Eneæ Silvii Piccolomini Senensis, qui portea fuit Pius II." Part-Max. Opera Inedita. Descripsit J. Cagnone. Roma. 1883. |