ate consideration of her actions as a whole, of her general policy and motives. Herr Bekker aims at clearing Queen Mary at the expense of every one else. If she lived in an atmosphere of villany and intrigue, it is difficult to see why we should believe that she alone rose above it. It is more probable that she was on the same level as the rest. She is best vindicated by the process of levelling others down, and by pleading that she was no worse, though more unfortunate, than her accusers. Another German student, Herr Sepp, has hazarded a new hypothesis, which is ingenious, but rests on nothing.* He explains the Casket letters as being pages out of Queen Mary's diary, which were cut out and applied to other circumstances than those in which they were written. He has re-arranged them from this point of view, has pointed out the interpolations, and has restored them as materials for a biography. The result of this curious ingenuity is amusing, but cannot be convincing. Some may continue to believe in the authenticity of the Casket letters in some form or other, but may admit that they were tampered with and interpolated. It is, however, tolerably clear that they were letters, and nothing is gained by converting them into a diary. However, Dr. Sepp is so convinced of the truth of his hypothesis that he has determined to give the German public the means of examining it still further. For this purpose he has collected all the documents relating to Queen Mary's trial in England, and so has made a useful handbook † for those who rejoice in trying to solve questions of personal gossip which are too often confounded with history. There is nothing in any of these works to disturb the conviction that Mary sinned as much as she was sinned against. Further than that general conclusion, the materials are wanting for an exact distribution of blame to all concerned in her downfall.

Two publications of the Camden Society have more than ordinary interest. Mr. Osmund Airy has issued a first instalment of the "Lauderdale Papers" preserved in the British Museum. As the papers themselves fill thirty-six volumes in MS., the task of the editor has been chiefly one of selection. Mr. Airy's first volume extends as far as 1667, and all the documents that it coutains are of indisputable importance. His object has been to choose what was most valuable for the illustration of Scottish history during the Restoration period, and especially to throw light on the character and career of Lauderdale and Archbishop Sharp. The general impression gained from reading them is, that every one in Scotland was engaged in unblushing self-seeking. The Restoration opened up an opportunity for intrigue for office and plunder. The letters of Sharp contained in this collection show a combination of meanness, hypocrisy, and knavery which it is hard to parallel. Scottish affairs were soon in the hands of Lauderdale, Moray, and Charles II. The conduct of Middleton afforded them an opportunity of getting rid of him;

Tagebuch der unglücklichen Schottenkönigin Maria Stuart während ihrem Aufenthaltes zu Glasgow." Herausgegeben von Dr. Bernhard Sepp. München: Lindauer.

1882.

"Maria Stuart und ihre Ankläger zu York, Westminster und Hamptoncourt." München: Lindauer. 1884.

"The Lauderdale Papers." Edited by Osmund Airy. Vol. i. 1639-1667. Camden Society. 1884.

and Rothes, for a time, served as a useful instrument to prepare the way for Lauderdale's accession to power. The violence and brutality of the Government is amply shown. It is difficult to conceive anything more destitute of principle than appears in these pages. Their general bearing on history is fully shown by Mr. Airy in an article in the Quarterly Review for April, 1884.

The other publication of the Camden Society is "The Political Memoranda of Francis, Fifth Duke of Leeds,"* edited by Mr. Oscar Browning. Francis Godolphin Osborne, Duke of Leeds, was not a great man nor a profound statesman, but he was a diligent and painstaking official, whose political career reached its height between 1781 and 1791, when he was Secretary of State in Pitt's Ministry. He resigned his office because he did not consider that the Ministry was pursuing a sufficiently spirited policy against Russia. The "Memoranda" of the Duke of Leeds consist of brief records, written in diary fashion, of important periods and events. They deal chiefly with the downfall of Lord North, the Shelburne Ministry, the formation of Pitt's Ministry, the Regency Question in 1788, the events which led to his own resignation in 1791, and the attempt made in 1792 to form a coalition between Pitt and Fox. There is not much information which is absolutely new, but these pages enable us to judge better of the political temper of the time. The Duke of Leeds was himself a dull but industrious man. His Memoranda are dictated by the business-like spirit of a professional statesman, not by the zeal of an observer. We learn something from him; but we wonder very much at the end of the volume that we have not learned a great deal

more.

A curious contribution to the history of English diplomacy is made by Dr. Ernst Borkowsky, who examines the diplomatic proceedings of King George II. in 1745.† George II. undertook to use his influence to make peace between Prussia and Austria, and end the second Silesian war. Herr Borkowsky traces, from documents in the archives of Hanover, the manner in which George II. fulfilled his engagement. Lord Harrington in England did his best to induce Maria Theresa to make peace. Meanwhile, the Hanoverian Ministers, Wasner and Steinberg, with the knowledge of George II., entered into negotiations with Maria Theresa in an opposite sense. They did their utmost to throw difficulties in the way of Harrington's plans, and Louis XV. proposed to Maria Theresa a separate peace with France as preferable to a separate peace with Prussia. George II., while ostensibly engaged in making peace between Prussia and Austria, passed on to consider the desirability of a peace with France instead. Only the overthrow of the negotiations between France and Austria by the battle of Kesseldorf prevented him from an open and shameless breach of faith. Nor was this all. The English ambassador at St. Petersburg, Lord Hyndford, was at the same time pursuing a decidedly anti-Prussian policy, and endeavoured to bring about an alliance between Russia and Austria in opposition to Frederick II. The result

* Printed from the originals in the British Museum. Camden Society. 1884. +"Die englische Friedensvermittlung im Jahre 1745: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der geheimen Diplomatie König Georgs II." Von Dr. Ernst Berkowsky. Berlin: Berzzold. 1884.

of the investigations of Herr Borkowsky is to lead to the conviction that George II.'s personal prejudices played a greater part in affairs than is generally believed. It is remarkable to find the Prussian ambassador repeating as Lord Hyndford's confession of his political faith: "Pour moi, je ne suis d'aucun parti et suis uniquement attaché au roi."

*

In foreign history a noticeable work is being done by Dr. Güdemann, of Vienna, who is engaged on a history of the culture of the Jews in the West during medieval and modern times. The second volume, which has just appeared, deals with the Jews in Italy during the Middle Ages. It is remarkable that Italy is the only country in Europe in which the Jews were never systematically persecuted. Probably this was due to the fact that religious fanaticism never prevailed in Italy so far as to overthrow all other considerations. Moreover, Italy was essentially a commercial country, and trade was never associated exclusively with the Jews. They were not the only usurers, and so were not regarded with exceptional jealousy. In Rome, especially, Jews found the safest asylum. The medieval Papacy was certainly more tolerant in matters of opinion than was the public opinion of Europe. Dr. Güdemann thinks that this was partly due, in the case of the Jews, to a desire for the protection-money which they paid. This is scarcely fair to the Papacy, for its toleration was equally great where no money was to be gained. This absence of persecution however, was not an intellectual advantage. The Italian Jews did not produce any eminent men in science or in Jewish lore. They took the stamp of the land in which they dwelt, and prided themselves on their superior refinement to the Jews of Germany and France. The typical Jew of Italy, Immanuel ben Salamo, wrote Italian sonnets as well as a commentary on Scripture, a work on grammar, and an imitation of Dante's "Divina Commedia." The character of the Jew is almost lost in that of the Italian. Herr Güdemann naturally wishes to show that the Jews influenced Italian culture as much as they were influenced by it. It is difficult to see any definite contribution which they made. His book is interesting because it puts together many features of Italian life in a new point of view.

An American translation of Herr Gindely's "History of the Thirty Years' War" will be welcome to many readers.+ Mr. Ten Brook, the translator, tells us that he undertook his task because he came upon the book while preparing to write a popular history of the subject himself. The introductory chapter and the notes which he has contributed lead us to think that he showed a wise discretion. We think he would have been wiser if he had abstained even from these. Nor can much be said in praise of the translation, which is often obscure and almost always clumsy. Of Gindely's work it is impossible to speak within our limits. It is founded on much study of documents preserved in the Bohemian and other archives, and is a compendium of much that its author has published in other forms. It is written in the true spirit of a historian who is describing the collision of con

* "Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden in Italien während des Mittelalters." Von Dr. M. Güdemann. Wien: Holder. 1884.

+ "History of the Thirty Years' War." By Anton Gindely. Translated by Andrew Ten Brook. 2 vols. New York: Putnam. 1884.

tradictory principles and motives which he does his best to understand and appreciate. It is a work of real learning, which cannot be overlooked by the historical student.

Dr. Landau has written a work which is full of interest in its subject and is treated in an interesting manner.* He tells us that his original intention was to study the flourishing period of Austria under the rule of the House of Hapsburg. The mass of material drove him to limit his scheme to the reign of Charles VI. Even this was found unmanageable owing to the different interests and endeavours of provinces and nationalities which depended on the Austrian House. Finally, he contented himself with the conquest of Naples for the House of Austria, and the consequent strife with the Papacy. This is excellently done, with copious learning, the fruits of much research, but with a vivacity and power of literary presentation which is by no means common amongst German writers. Pope Clement XI., Cardinal Grimani, and Count Martintiz are admirably portrayed, and the steps in the struggle between the Pope and the Emperor are shown in their true relations. It is a book which will be read with pleasure.

M. Philippson, of Brussels, has done a useful work in bringing together more than is generally known about the counter Reformation in the sixteenth century. Few things in history are more impressive than the way in which Catholicism organized itself to cope with the defection caused by the struggle for reform, and the success which attended that organization. Ranke first placed this matter in its true light, and M. Philippson has aimed at pursuing the question farther. He has dealt with his subject in greater detail, but has been so anxious to show us the nature of the new organization of the Roman Church that he has no space to show how the organization worked. His book treats in order of the Company of Jesus, the Inquisition, and the Council of Trent. Each of these subjects is treated separately, and so we lose the sense of their mutual action. Chronology suffers, and men are spoken of in reference to each subject so that we lose any sense of their character and activity as a whole. About the Jesuits and the Inquisition enough is known from other writers; but M. Philippson's sketch of the Council of Trent contains more information in a moderate compass than is to be found elsewhere. He has brought together the results of modern research, and has set them before the reader clearly and concisely. Where his work seems to us to fail is in showing what were the principles which underlay the work of the Council of Trent, and how those principles influenced mankind. The Roman Church was regenerated, and regained its hold upon men's minds. Decrees of Councils are not enough for such a purpose. A consideration of the defects of Protestantism is a necessary complement of an inquiry into the causes of the success of the counter-Reformation.

The third volume of Mr. Boulger's "History of China" appears at a time when China is attracting considerable attention. This concluding volume of Mr. Boulger's work deals exclusively with the present century, and its subject is the gradual inroads of Europeans

1885.

"Rom, Wien, Neapel, während des spanischen Erbfolge Krieges." Von Dr. Marcus Landau. Leipzig: Friedrich. +"La Contre-Révolution religieuse au XVIe. Siècle." Par Martin Philippson. Bruxelles: Muquardt. 1884.

London: Allen. 1884.

within the ring fence of the Chinese Empire. Trade and trading interests slowly made their way. At first the area was narrow within which communications were allowed. The advantages to be derived from trade outweighed, in the minds of the local governors, the orders of the Emperor. The privileges granted to the East India Company assumed a new importance when the affairs of the Company passed into the hands of the Crown. It is inevitable that international relations should be interpreted differently by peoples whose ideas are founded upon different principles. Mr. Boulger defends the general course of our policy towards China, though he admits that mistakes were made at times through want of clear expression of our intentions. Mr. Boulger gives a clear narrative of events. In dealing with such a subject it is impossible to do more. At present we can only look at matters from our own point of view. We cannot hope for an impartial history till we know how things looked to the Chinese.

M. CREIGHTON.

II.-ART.

If all years were like the one now drawing to a close, one migh: parody the famous saying and declare it to be a "happy nation that has no Art history." For the record of work in this department which has been produced in 1884 reveals little of interest, and perhaps even less of merit. Within the last fifteen years the chief of our yearly exhibitions has by general consent never been so uninteresting. And how great a condemnation this implies can only be understood by those whose business or pleasure has occasioned them to study regularly the shows at the Royal Academy. The collection of paintings also at the great rival picture-shop in Bond-street, known as the Grosvenor Gallery, was upon the whole the weakest Sir Coutts Lindsay had ever gathered together, and had it not been for a single picture, would have fallen below the level of the Academy itself. Of the minor exhibitions, of which there have been more than we can enumerate, the most important have been the large miscellaneous ones held at the new galleries in Piccadilly, the Institutes of Painters in Oil, and Water Colours. These collections have probably been to the casual visitor as pleasant as any-the rooms being just sufficiently large, the seats comfortable, the pictures selected mainly from the works of the younger artists, and embracing nearly every style of work which is at present prevalent in the English schools. But here too there has been nothing of very great merit; the work has been praiseworthy, but hardly intelligent; skilful, but scarcely fine. Here and there out of seven or eight hundred pictures and drawings, one or two have been noticeable which struck some unconventional train of thought, some infrequent note of colour, or showed some unusual delicacy of drawing. But for the most part the old men have gone on in the old ways, and the new men have followed dutifully in the tracks of their fathers. If