Biological Research

used to hold, propagate, relocate, and reintroduce native mussels, and new methods are being developed to determine their distribution and abundance.

Large Rivers - USGS research related to the unique resources and conditions found in America's large rivers, such as the Missouri, Mississippi, and Columbia, is developing vital information on fish community structure and function, habitat restoration, migratory bird habitat, hydrology and hydraulics of the rivers, degree of sediment contamination, and water quality. This information will be used by water managers to respond to increasing demands and legal mandates for high-quality water with reliable and integrated-scientific information.

Recent Accomplishments

Freshwater Mussel Biology and Surveys - Freshwater mussels are an important but threatened component of aquatic ecosystems, acting as excellent indicators of water quality but vulnerable to water pollution and habitat destruction. USGS scientists developed a technique for isolating bacterial pathogens from soft tissues of mussels to address potential transmission of the bacteria to fish. Experiments showed that mussels readily acquire bacteria from infected fish and can, in turn, spread the disease to uninfected fish. USGS also developed a standardized survey protocol for biological assessments of rare and endangered mussels. The protocol combines qualitative methods for determining species presence with quantitative sampling to estimate population density. Habitat disturbance and cost of surveys are greatly reduced by the new protocol.

Bottom Mapping for Fish Habitat Studies – USGS scientists at the USGS Great Lakes Science Center and Coastal and Marine Geology Program successfully completed initial highdefinition airborne mapping of sites in northern Lake Michigan used for lake trout spawning habitat. This work, in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and John E. Chance and Associates, obtained SHOALS (Scanning Hydrographic Operational Airborne LIDAR Survey) data in northern Lake Michigan in FY 2001. The SHOALS system, operated jointly by the USACE and U.S. Navy, uses LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) to make lakefloor maps in areas too shallow for practical use of sonar systems. Excellent data were collected over five reefs and two coastal sites, depicting detailed lake trout habitat comprised of glacial and bedrock outcrops. USGS, Tribal, State and DOI agency clients use this information to determine optimum sites for stocking eggs and fry for native lake trout restoration.

Wildlife

(estimates for FY 2001, $21.3 million; FY 2002, $22.5 million; FY 2003, $21.8 million)

Research conducted in the Wildlife program area focuses on investigations of factors regulating the distribution, abundance, and condition of wildlife populations and communities, including their behavior, genetics, and habitat requirements. Studies also evaluate the effects of disease on wildlife populations and communities and the prevention and management of disease in freeranging biota.

Congress appropriated an additional $250,000 in FY 2002 to study diamondback terrapins in the Chesapeake Bay. The focus of this study is on the cause and extent of population declines in the Bay. USGS scientists are examining the role of contaminants, predation, and other issues such as genetic viability that influence the population viability of turtles and other reptiles. This research is coordinated with the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, University of Maryland Cooperative Research Unit, and university researchers who have initiated preliminary

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inventory work with private funds. If these declines continue, the diamondback terrapin could become a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act.

Migratory Birds (estimates for FY2001, $1.0 million; FY 2002, $1.0 million; FY 2003, $1.0 million) - USGS research efforts on migratory birds are national in scope and are coordinated with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), all the State fish and wildlife agencies, as well as the Canadian and Mexican wildlife agencies. Migratory bird research includes projects on individual species, habitat relationships, and applied work on increasing the number and diversity of birds. These research efforts on migratory birds support the Interior Department's stewardship responsibilities in the broadest sense. USGS helps to provide the scientific support to reach the major objective of the North American Birds Conservation program. This program focuses on populations and habitats of North America's birds that are protected, restored, or enhanced through coordinated efforts at the National, regional, State. and local level; guided by sound science and effective management. USGS bird research data are crucial to the FWS and the States in management of migratory waterfowl populations. USGS also conducts scientific research necessary in conservation planning for endangered bird species such as whooping cranes, declining grassland birds of the prairies, neotropical migrant songbirds, shorebirds, and many others. Research into threats such as wildlife disease (e.g.. West Nile Virus), habitat loss, and contaminants is an important part of the program.

Wildlife Disease (estimates for FY2001, $4.5 million; FY 2002, $4.5 million; FY 2003, $4.5 million) - Each year, Federal and State wildlife managers across the United States are confronted with sick and dead animals, frequently on a large scale. Managing and minimizing such wildlife losses and disease outbreaks depends on effective technical, diagnostic support, knowledgeable guidance, and timely intervention. The USGS National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) has a unique mission to provide information, technical assistance, and research on State, national, and international wildlife health issues. The NWHC monitors wildlife disease and assesses the impact on wildlife populations; defines ecological relationships leading to the occurrence of disease; transfers technology for disease prevention and control; and provides guidance, training, and on-site assistance to State and Federal wildlife managers when outbreaks occur. Due to the mobility of wildlife and potential for spread of disease, timely and accurate determination of causes of wildlife illness and death is a prerequisite to achieving effective disease control and prevention.

The USGS, along with the Center for Disease Control and State and Federal agencies, continues to carry out a national surveillance effort to document bird mortality from the newly introduced West Nile Virus. Specimens collected during this surveillance are examined by USGS scientists and tested for the virus. Concurrently, USGS, along with several State and Federal natural resource and public health agencies, continues to collect information to determine the geographic spread of the disease. In 2001, the disease continued expanding from its initial outbreak in the greater New York City area, and has now been found in States from Maine to Florida, south to Louisiana and as far west as Missouri. Primarily a wild bird disease, this past year West Nile Virus was confirmed in 25 humans, including an Atlanta, GA, woman who died. It has now been found in more than 80 bird species and 9 mammal species since its arrival in this Country in 1999. The West Nile Virus and other introduced diseases, such as the bubonic plague and Lyme disease, are often found in wildlife and then transmitted to humans or domestic animals. The unique interdisciplinary capacity of the USGS to investigate and map such disease outbreaks has become increasingly important.

Biological Research

Amphibian Research and Monitoring (estimates for FY2001, $2.0 million; FY 2002, $2.5 million; FY 2003, $2.0 million) - Amphibians are considered good indicators of general ecosystem health due to their close association with various aquatic habitats and sensitivity to different environmental stresses. In response to alarming indications of declines in amphibian populations in the United States and throughout the world, several Interior bureaus undertook a national Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (ARMI). The USGS, as the science bureau for DOl, is leading a coordinated research effort extending beyond Interior to other Federal, State, and academic partners, to track the status of amphibians nationwide and investigate potential causative factors for their decline. A steering committee, with members representing many Federal land management agencies and other amphibian conservation organizations, provides guidance and recommendations to the ARMI program. ARMI coordinators in seven bio-geographical regions throughout the Country conduct amphibian population status and trend surveys on Federal lands, develop and test new monitoring protocols, and evaluate habitat conditions. The NWHC conducts research on chytrid, ranaviruses, and other diseases affecting amphibians.

With the additional $500,000 provided by Congress in FY 2002, new research studies were begun on potential causes of amphibian population declines (contaminants, habitat change, invasive species, etc.), and more partnerships with States and non-governmental organizations were created.

Wild Horses (estimates for FY2001, $0.25 million; FY 2002, $0.25 million; FY 2003, $0.25 million) - In much of the arid West, especially in the Great Basin region, substantial herds of wild horses roam the public lands. Protected by the Wild Horse and Burro Act, the horses are a living Western heritage, but are also capable of rapid reproduction. Because of their arid environment, overpopulation can result and with it bring overgrazing and significant impacts on wildlife and other resources.

A team of USGS scientists conducts research on wild horse contraception. This effort, which has been underway for several years, has made significant progress in the development of a cost-effective, reversible-contraception vaccine. Most recently, the research has demonstrated success at extending the contraceptive effectiveness from 1 year, to 2 or more years with only one inoculation. The result of this will be a major reduction in the annual costs of wild horse herd management for the BLM in the Western United States. This will provide substantial protection for wildlife, livestock, and other public land resources. It is anticipated that future research efforts will refine multiple year contraception vaccines, focus on population modeling, and determine behavior aspects of contraception on herd dynamics.

Alaska Research (estimates for FY2001, $2.5 million; FY 2002, $2.5 million; FY 2003, $2.5 million) - The USGS plays a pivotal role in conducting research on wildlife and their vast habitats in Alaska. Federal public lands in the State represent an overwhelming landscape (equivalent in size to all of the eastern seaboard from Maine through Florida). Nearly 88 percent of all National Wildlife Refuge lands and 65 percent of all National Park lands are in Alaska. The Biological Science Office of the Alaska Science Center is responsible for research in support of trust lands and waters (including those of the National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, and Minerals Management Service) and DOI trust species (including migratory birds, marine mammals, and anadromous fish) in Alaska, providing scientific information essential for resource management decisions.

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Recent Accomplishments

Conservation of Declining Amphibians - The USGS collaborated with the National Park Service and the U.S. Forest Service to investigate the decline in populations of amphibians on Federal lands in the Northern Rockies, as part of the national Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative. Studies addressed the roles of climate change, introduction of trout for sport fishing, and other factors in the decline or disappearance of frogs and salamanders. Two disease-causing agents (a fungus and a virus) have been identified consistently during the investigation of amphibian die-offs. Current investigations focus on field and laboratory studies to assess the sources of these pathogens and environmental conditions linked to their proliferation.

Investigations of the West Nile Virus - West Nile Virus appears to be devastating wild bird populations. This is an example of the effects of a well-known disease occurring in a new part of the world where it has never been before. In particular, the virus readily kills corvids (crows, ravens, jays and their allies), several of which are endangered. In addition, the virus can infect several other species of birds that do not die, but become sources of the virus for mosquitoes. States funded by the Centers for Disease Control have launched into virus surveillance programs that incorporate testing dead wild birds. In FY 2001, the National Wildlife Health Center (NWHC) collaborated with 30 states in this joint effort and tested 2500 birds. In addition, the NWHC is conducting basic infection research with West Nile Virus and crows. Experimental results indicate that crows are capable of spreading virus to mosquitoes before they die from infection. Crows can also spread virus to other crows by direct contact, and mallard ducks can become infected and pass the virus to mosquitoes but do not die from the infection. More experiments are planned to test vaccines in birds as well as a continuation of a field study to survey wild birds (collect blood samples) along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

Ecosystems

(estimates for FY 2001, $26.1 million; FY 2002, $26.6 million; FY 2003, $23.9 million) Ecosystems research focuses on understanding how ecosystems (diverse communities of organisms interacting with one another and with the physical environment) are structured, function, and provide "ecosystem services." The health of ecosystems and ecosystem processes strongly influences environmental conditions and serves of major concern to humans, such as the productivity of animals and plants, aquatic community health, local and global biodiversity within landscapes, and air and water quality. Studies of productivity, foodweb relationships and energy flow, the cycling of nutrients and other biogeochemical processes, and the heterogeneity of biological communities are examples of such research. Investigations seek to identify, explain, and predict the consequences of short- and long-term changes in the environment. Activities include assessing ecosystem vulnerability to adverse effects of environmental change and providing information needed to mitigate these effects. Topical areas for ecosystems research include the ecology of wetland, lake and river, forest, arid land, arctic, and grassland ecosystems; disturbances and landscape ecology; modeling ecological systems and quantifying ecosystem services; systems restoration ecology; fire ecology, and global change.

Coastal Wetlands and Adjacent Habitats - Coastal wetlands and adjacent freshwater habitats have suffered significant losses this century. USGS biologists investigate wetland structure and function (including Great Lakes habitats) to assess the effects of human activities, predict environmental changes, and measure effectiveness of management actions. Studies

Biological Research

examine the ecological responses of coastal wetlands to multiple stressors such as sea-level rise and nutrient inputs. Research into non-native species impacts and the effects of disturbances such as canal dredging, hurricanes, and floods are ongoing. Methods and standards for restoring coastal wetlands are under development; adaptive management evaluations are being conducted; and modeling is underway to design restoration and management tools.

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies (estimates for FY 2001, $2.5 million; FY 2002, $2.5 million; FY 2003, $2.5 million) - The Minerals Management Service (MMS) needs information on the long-term effects of offshore oil and gas exploration and production, including the effects of production platforms on fish and changes to existing biological conditions in areas of potential or new production. USGS scientists collaborate with the MMS to determine the health and appraise the vulnerability of marine biological communities that could be affected by offshore oil and gas exploration and production.

Coral Reefs (estimates for FY 2001, $0.5 million; FY 2002, $0.5 million; FY 2003, $0.5 million) - Coral reefs and associated sea grass beds, mangroves, and estuarine ecosystems are declining worldwide. Reef ecosystems in Hawaii, the Pacific Island Trust Territories, Florida, and the Caribbean are among the most productive systems on Earth and provide invaluable ecosystem services to humans. Causes of decline are poorly understood but likely include increased sedimentation, declining water quality, disease, and over-fishing. USGS research on issues facing land and water managers include: Reef Health - understanding conditions needed for high quality, healthy reef communities; Coral Decline - quantifying location, extent, and abiotic and biotic factors contributing to coral disease and decline; and Protected Area Structure and Function - evaluating human activities and management in parks, refuges, and other areas and their influence on conservation for reef integrity and biodiversity.

Rangelands and Grasslands – USGS conducts studies on native grasslands and managed rangelands to quantify ecosystem condition, determine rare plant patterns, appraise species richness, and identify areas of native plant diversity. Such studies provide baseline information for managers and underpin measures of human-induced stress in natural biological communities and the development of management actions for restoring and maintaining the productivity of managed rangelands.

Deserts and Arid Lands - In the Southwest, shrubs such as creosote bush and mesquite have invaded large expanses of semi-arid grasslands that naturally support a mix of plant and animal communities. Agriculture, recreational activities, and both livestock and native animal grazing have also affected these communities so land managers need information to protect and restore productive ecosystems. Effects such as decreased nutritional content of plants, lower diversity or productivity of native species, decreased water availability, diminished soil microbial populations, and accelerated rates of soil-surface erosion are being studied.

Fire Ecology (estimates for FY 2001, $2.8 million, FY 2002, $2.8 million; FY 2003, $0) – USGS conducts fire ecology research to understand the effects of wildland fire on wildlife habitat and ecosystem structure, function, sustainability, and restoration. Emphasis is on the role of fire in the restoration of rangelands and the effectiveness of fire/vegetation treatments in the control of invasive plants. Studies are conducted to determine how the frequency, intensity, and geographic scope of fires influence the distribution and abundance of key wildlife species. USGS conducts studies funded by the Joint Interior-Agriculture Fire Science Program to address fuels management and fire hazard reduction.

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