1,050,000 poods of cast-iron. In those belonging to private | men to the numerous body of rich nobles which exists individuals there were produced 90,000 poods of copper, among them. Among the Little Russians a considera and between 3 and 4 million poods of cast-iron. The pro- number of families are not subject to any master; and a duce of the mines in the governments of Viatka and Oren- Cossacks are all free. The Russians have attained a greater burg is not stated. It is however supposed that in both degree of civilization than is generally supposed, as is eve taken together it fell short of that of Perm alone. Iron-ore dent from the care with which the soil is cultivated in the however is not confined to the Ural Mountains; it occurs more fertile provinces of the empire, from the activity also on the southern declivity of the Uwalli, and on the which the internal navigation is conducted, and from table-land which extends about the sources of the rivers numerous manufactures in the governments of Yaros.. Oka, Don, and Desna. It is there found in the clay in lay- Kostroma, Moscow, Tula, and Kaluga. In some of t ers, and sometimes only in lumps. Frequently it occurs in branches of manufacture they have distinguished the bogs and morasses. The quantity of iron obtained in these selves, especially in tanning. Very few foreigners tr parts is considerable, and the extensive manufactures of Tula more civilised nations have settled in those parts which a hardly use any other iron, Other metals are not worked, exclusively inhabited by the Russians; and the civiliza though it is said that quicksilver, arsenic, nickel, cobalt, which they have attained, is as it were of native growth. antimony, and bismuth exist in several places. The Poles, together with the Russians, inhabit the vernments of Volhynia and Podolia, and almost exclusive. that of Grodno. Their numbers within the boundary Russia amount to about four millions, to which the p lation of Poland to the same amount may be added. 1. Poles, as a nation, consist of between nine and ten millio but about two millions of them are in Prussia and Ausar a As the country which they inhabit borders on a par: Europe which is more advanced in civilization, the E have adopted more refined manners; but in the art civilised life, especially in manufactures, and all brand of industry, they are behind the Russians. Within: territories of Russia the Poles are bondsmen to the nob... but in Poland they are free.

Salt is an important article. We have already mentioned the numerous salt lakes in the great steppe to the east of the Volga and the rock-salt of Ilez. But the salt-formation seems to extend along the western declivity of the Ural Mountains, to the source of the Kama, and thence westward on both sides of the Uwalli. In all these districts salt is made from the salt-springs, which are numerous. The greater number of these salt-manufactures are contained in the governments of Perm and Viatka; but several of them occur in the basin of the Sukhona, a branch of the Dwina, and those near Totma are of great extent. The most western salt-work is at Staraïa Russia, a few miles south of the lake of Ilmen, by which some of the countries along the Baltic are provided with this article. But a considerable quantity of salt is imported into the last-mentioned countries, as the places in Russia where salt is made are very remote, and the expenses of transport are so great that salt can be got from France or England at a more moderate price. Coal exists in a few places, as on the banks of the river Maloga, where it is found with iron-ore. Pallas says that it also frequently occurs in the vicinity of the river Donetz, and to the north of Taganrok, beyond the sources of the rivers which fall into the Black Sea: it is not worked. Other minerals are not much used, with the exception of marble and granite, of which there exist extensive quarries near the village of Tivdia, at the northern extremity of the lake of Onega; and at Serdobol, on the northern shores of Lake Ladoga. The marble is of a good grain; some is white, and some has a reddish colour with white stripes or spots. The granite is worked with great activity, as all the public edifices and many of the private palaces in Petersburg are built of it.

Inhabitants.-Russia is inhabited by a greater number of nations, differing in language, character, and civilization, than any other country of Europe. The inhabitants belong either to the Caucasian or to the Mongol race. The Caucasian however is by far the most numerous, as the nations of Mongol origin do not comprehend one-hundredth part of the whole population.

The Lithuanians inhabit the countries adjacent to northern part of Poland and to Eastern Prussia, or governments of Vilna and Minsk. Their number does. exceed one million and a half. Though certainly belong. to the Slavonian family, their language is very differ in its material and forms, but is intermixed with my Russian terms. They are agriculturists, but otherw they have not made much progress in civilization. Nor of the Lithuanians, in Courland and Livonia, are Lettes, whose number probably does not much exceed L. a million. They speak a language different from that the Russians and the Lithuanians. They are exclusi occupied with the cultivation of the ground. Those # live in Courland are frequently distinguished by the n of Koors. Both nations, the Lithuanians and Lettes, .. bondsmen to the German nobility established into country, till the reign of the emperor Alexander, who effec their emancipation.

The Vlaches, or Wallachians, only live in the most sc western angle of the empire, in the government of -sarabia, between the rivers Dniester and Pruth. Their nu ber does not exceed half a million. They speak a langua which is mainly composed of Latin, Greek, Italian, a Turkish words, which however have undergone some cha and corruption. They are industrious cultivators of land, but do not appear to have otherwise made much p gress in civilization. They were formerly slaves to t boyars or nobility, but they ceased to be so nearly 10 years ago. Among the Vlaches there are a few families Servians or Raizes, and a few more are settled in the vernment of Ekatarinoslaf.

The Caucasian race in Russia consists of individuals belonging to Slavonians, Tshudes or Fins, Turks or Tartars, Germans, Jews, and Greeks. Nine-tenths of the population belong to the Slavonians. They are divided into Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Lettes, and Wallachians and Servians. The Russians constitute more than two-thirds The Tshudes, or Fins, were formerly considered to belt of the whole population, and their number is estimated at to the Mongol race; but their light hair and their blue eye about 40 millions, and consequently they are equal to the have of late procured them a place among the Caucas. Germans, who are considered the most numerous nation of race, in spite of their flat noses and flattened countenances Europe. They inhabit, to the exclusion of all other nations, They inhabit two separate portions of Russia. The may r the central provinces of the empire between the Dnieper of them are settled on both sides of the Gulf of Finla and the Volga. On the banks of the Volga, and farther east Two of these nations, the Fins and the Laplanders. to the Ural Mountains, a great number of Russian families cupy the country north of the gulf. The Fins, who inhal have settled among the tribes belonging to the Tshudes Finland to the number of more than one million a and the Turks. On the banks of the Dnieper they are half, are agriculturists and breeders of cattle: they man mixed with Lithuanians and Poles; but south of the swamps their dairies with great skill. The Laplanders live north of Pinsk and Grodno the Russians are more numerous than 65° N. lat., and are mostly occupied with their reinde the Poles. They likewise constitute the mass of the inha- Their number does not exceed a few thousands. On 1. bitants in the northern provinces between the Ural Moun- south of the Gulf of Finland are the Esthes or Esthon. tains and the White Sea, and in the southern between the whose number is above half a million. Their language a Don and the Dniester. They are divided into Great and similar to that of the Fins. They are almost exclusive Little Russians. The latter inhabit the country called occupied with the cultivation of the ground, and were se the Ukraine, or the governments of Tchernigow, Pultava, to the nobles until 1818, when the emperor Alexa.. Kiew, Volhynia, and Podolia. The Cossacks are properly effected their emancipation. South of the Esthonians, descendants of the Little Russians, and are intermixed the country lying on both sides of the small river S with Poles, Tartars, and Calmucks. [COSSACKS.] The (near 58° N. lat.), is the small tribe of the Livis or L Great Russians, with the exception of a comparatively nians, who have given their name to Livonia. It is supp all number who have obtained their freedom, are bonds-that they formerly extended to the northern banks of

Düna, but were expelled from the southern districts by the Lettes. Their number does not exceed two thousand. They speak a dialect of the Finnish language, and are exclusively agriculturists.

tirely unknown. The Chuvashes cultivate the ground, and rear cattle and bees: the care of bees is a regular branch of rural economy. The Cheremisses are stated to amount to about 200,000 individuals. Their language seems to The eastern members of the Tshudic family are separated contain a much larger number of Finnish roots than that of from the western by an immense tract of country upwards the Chuvashes, but they are intermixed with a large numof 500 miles in width, which is now inhabited by Russians. ber of Turkish origin. The conformation of their body When and how the separation took place is not on record. likewise shows some mixture with the Turkish race. They The eastern Tshudic tribes live on the western declivity are very diligent and intelligent agriculturists, and have of the Ural Mountains, and on the banks of the middle large herds of cattle. The majority have adopted the reVolga, and are eight in number,-Syrianes, Permians, Vo-ligion of the Greek church, but many still adhere to their gules, Votiakes, Chuvashes, Cheremisses, Mordvines or heathen ceremonies and tenets. All of them observe the Mordwi, and Teptiares. religious festivals both of the Greek church and of the Mohammedans.

The Mordwi or Mordvines are settled west of the Chuvashes, in the country on both sides of the river Sura, which falls into the Volga from the south, between Nishneï Novgorod and Casan. On the west they extend to the very banks of the river Oka. They are divided into two tribes: the Ersad or Ersanes, who inhabit the tracts along the eastern banks of the Oka; and the Mokshad or Moskhan, on the banks of the Sura and Moksha. They are dispersed in the forests of the governments of Casan, Nishnei Novgorod, Simbirsk, Saratov, Pensa, and Tambow, and live intermixed with the Russians, with whom they communicate more freely than the Chuvashes and Cheremisses. Their number is stated not to exceed 92,000 souls. They are all Christians. They rather resemble the Russians than the Cheremisses and other Finish tribes. Their language is of Finnish origin. They cultivate their lands with great care, and their fields are not inferior to the best-cultivated grounds in Russia. They pay great attention to bees, especially the Mokshad, who have their lands in the middle of the extensive forests of lime-trees which are contiguous to the oakforests. Some individuals have from one hundred to two hundred bee-hives. Their honey is preferred to that of any other part of Russia.

The Teptiares, the most eastern of the Finnish tribes, are settled on the banks of the Bialaya, an affluent of the Kama from the east. The origin of this tribe is of comparatively modern date. When the Russians, in the middle of the sixteenth century, took possession of the territories belonging to the khan of Casan, a number of Cheremisses, Chuvashes, Votiakes, and Tartars left their country and settled along the upper course of the river Bialaya, where they soon formed a separate nation, which however was subject to a tax which they were obliged to pay to the Bashkirs, in whose country they had settled. Though the Finnish element prevails in their language, it always contained a large number of Turkish words, which were further increased by their close connection with their neighbours the Bashkirs. They do not attend much to the cultivation of the land, but rear cattle and bees, and pass a great part of their time in hunting the wild animals with which their country abounds. Their number, which in the middle of the last century did not exceed 34,000 individuals, is stated to have increased to 110,000. They are partly heathens and partly Mohammedans. The exertions of the Greek clergy to introduce their creed among them have almost entirely failed.

The Syrianes, the most northern of these tribes, inhabit the woody country between the upper course of the Kama and the Vychegda, an affluent of the Dwina, and particuurly both banks of the Vychegda, as far west as the mouth of the Syssola. Their number is stated not to exceed 30,000. Their principal occupation is the chase of the wild animals with which their country abounds, Their language differs ery little from that of the Permians, which has preserved a eat affinity to that spoken by the Finlanders, but still far differs from it as to be properly considered a distinct lect. The Permians occupy the country south of the Sranes, between the rivers Kama and Viatka. Their mber is stated not to exceed 35,000 individuals. Though Priculture has made more progress among them than ong the Syrianes, they derive their principal subsistence the chase, and more especially from the fisheries in Kama and Viatka. Both tribes, the Syrianes and rmians, though they have preserved their own dialects, erally speak also the Russian language. The Vogules occupy both declivities of the Ural Mounbetween 58° and 60° N. lat. According to the deption of them by Pallas, it would seem that they rather long to the Mongol than to the Caucasian race. They short in stature, have round faces with projecting cheeknes, and very little beard. They may be compared with Calmucks. But on the other hand their language shows at they belong to the Tshudes, though it exhibits so many uliarities as to have been sometimes considered a peculiar guage. The affinity of their language to that of the lagyars in Hungary is stated to be very great. The Voles live entirely on the produce of the chase. They live small societies, consisting only of five or six huts, and lead wandering life. Their number is stated to amount to 50,000 individuals, of whom however the greater part live ist of the Ural Mountains in Siberia. A small number ve been converted to the Greek church; the remainder heathens. The Votiakes are settled west of the Permians, on both les of the upper course of the river Viatka, and in the counabout the source of the Kama. In the conformation of r body they rather resemble the proper Fins than any these eastern Tshudic tribes; and their language has a greater affinity to that of the tribes on the shores of Gulf of Finland. They are diligent agriculturists, acthing to Pallas, and rear also cattle and bees. Some of → peasants have more than fifty bee-hives. The wax and ney are sent to Archangel. Their number is stated to Sreed 100,000 individuals; and government has granted permission to live under magistrates of their own be and chosen by themselves. They pay only a capitation-nally inhabit any portion of Russia, but came into it between Most of them have embraced Christianity. The Chuvashes and Cheremisses live in the neighbour d of Casan, on both sides of the Volga. The firstmed tribe is chiefly settled on the western side of the er, and the Cheremisses on the eastern. Single families found as far south as the town of Saratov. The number the Chuvashes is stated to be 370,000, all of whom, with e exception of about 3000, have become members of the rek church. In their personal appearance they resemble Turkish or Tartar tribes, a circumstance which is attrited to their having lived for many centuries near the .rtars of Casan. As to their language, a difference of nion prevails. The French philologist Levesque, from -examination of a printed grammar of their language, is pinion that it contains a large number of roots which are camon to the Finnish language. But Lumley Davids that the grammar of their language approaches very arly to the pure Turkish, that about three-fourths of the ds are of Turkish origin, and the rest belong to the OuLaan and Samoyede languages, and that some few are en

The third great branch of the Caucasian family which inhabits Russia is the Turkish. They are generally called Tartars, but they call their language Turkish. They did not origi

the ninth and thirteenth century with the Mongols and other conquerors. The Turkish tribes at present existing in Russia are four, the Tartars of Casan, the Bashkirs, the Metsheriakes, and the Nogai Tartars. The Tartars of Casan are the most civilised nation in Russia. Their language, according to Lumley Davids, is the most cultivated and polished of the Turkish idioms. The attempts of the Greek clergy to convert them to Christianity have not been successful, and they are still Mohammedans; they take great care of the education of their children. They have schools both for the lower and higher classes of the people. In the elementary schools instruction is given in reading and writing, and the Korán and some other religious books are explained. The objects of instruction in the higher schools are the Turkish, Persian, and Arabian languages, and arithmetic. The priests are educated in an institution established for that purpose in a village called Gargali, which is about nine miles from the town of Orenburg. Those who are established at Casan, and in other towns, are either merchants or manufacturers. They traffic chiefly in tea, goods im

ported from Bokhara, and stuffs of European manufacture. | numerous in all the sea-ports, in the southern provinces ar They are very expert in tanning leather. The inhabitants in the Crimea; and along the middle course of the Volga a of the villages are very careful cultivators of the soil, and great number of German colonists have been settled at t also occupy themselves with rearing cattle and bees. Their expense of government in the last seventy years. The num.villages are well provided with the most common mechanics, ber of such colonists in the government of Saratow airas tanners, shoemakers, tailors, dyers, blacksmiths, and amounts to more than 30,000, and they constitute nearly. carpenters. Like other Mohammedans, they are distin- whole population of some towns and of villages. guished by their cleanliness. According to Erdmann, their number amounts to about 230,000, of whom about oneeighth have embraced Christianity.

The Swedes are numerous along the northern coast of EGulf of Finland, and the eastern coast of the Gulf of Be nia. In some places they constitute the whole popuis!» to the exclusion of the Fins, but generally both nat, ni live together. The number of Swedes in these parts pr bably exceeds 100,000, and there are also a few Swedish milies in Esthonia.

There are no Jews in the central and northern provinces but they are numerous in those parts which formerly longed to Poland, especially in the government of Vi.. Grodno, Volhynia, and Podolia, where they are almost 1 sole inhabitants of the towns. They exercise several ki of handicraft; they are smiths, tailors, shoemakers, & They have also small breweries and distilleries. The. number is stated to exceed a million.

The number of Greeks probably does not exceed half : million. They are dispersed all over the southern provin of the empire as merchants; and in the Crimea there ... a few villages entirely inhabited by them. They occ themselves with agriculture, especially gardening.

language is Turkish, and it is supposed that they owe their | case, the crops in 1839 and 1840 having proved deficient. origin to several tribes of Mongols, which have united with The government makes great efforts to favour agriculture. Turkish tribes, and in progress of time formed one nation. It endeavours to extend useful knowledge on the subject to Like the Calmucks, they are nomadic herdsmen, but they all parts of the empire; many agricultural societies have have only a small number of camels, the climate of their been formed, and schools established, in which everything country being much more severe than the steppes farther bearing on the subject is taught in the most simple manner. west. They also keep some cattle and goats. Their wealth A school of agriculture has been lately formed at Gorygomainly consists ir horses and sheep. Some rich proprietors retzk (a domain of the crown) near Mohilew; it is designed are said to have 4000 or 5000 horses and 20,000 sheep. for educating 120 young men in such a manner as to qualify The sheep supply the principal articles of traffic, and nume- them for the management of great estates. rous flocks are annually sold to the Russians at Orenburg, Troizk, and Astrakhan. Their agriculture is limited to the raising of some barley, and a small quantity of wheat and millet. They are also expert hunters, and in winter kill the fur-bearing animals, with which their country abounds, and in summer the saiga-antelope. The Kirghis Cossacks are Mohammedans, but far from being very exact in the performance of the duties prescribed by that religion.

The breeding of silkworms promises to prosper in the southern provinces of the empire, that is, the Transcaucasian provinces, and in Taurida, the countries on the Volga between Saratow and Astrakhan, and the governments of Kiew and Podolia.

Manufactures.-The manufactures of Russia commenced, as in other countries, with the beginning of its political importance, but have been chiefly indebted for their encou(Pallas, Reisen durch Verschiedene Provinzen des Rus- ragement and progress to the efforts of the government. sischen Reichs; Pallas, Travels through the Southern Pro-The czars Ivan I. and II., who in the fifteenth and sixteenth vinces of the Russian Empire; Erman, Reise um die Erde; centuries had restored Russia to independence, invited artiZwick, Calmuc Tartary, or a Journey from Sarepta to sans and workmen from Germany, the Netherlands, and several Calmuc Hordes; Erdmann, Beiträge zur Kenntniss Italy, and established at Moscow, Yaroslaw, Smolensk, and des Innern von Russland; Georgi, Beschreibung des Rus- Kiew manufactures of woollen cloth, linen, arms, &c. $18chen Reiches; Klaproth, Asia Polyglotta; Rose, Reise But the civil wars before the accession of the house of Ronach dem Ural, dem Altai, und dem Kaspischen Meere; manoff, and the interference of Sweden and Poland, which Miller, Der Ugrische Volks-stamm; and Schubert, Reise led to the desolation of the country, checked the infant durch Schweden, Norwegen, Lappland, Finnland, und In- manufactures, so that in fact nothing was done till the reign germanland.) of Peter the Great, who in this, as in many other respects, was the founder of the prosperity of Russia. He gave great encouragement to foreign manufacturers, and founded in the first instance great manufactories of arms at Tula, Petrosawodsk, and at Sestrabeck near Petersburg; and the great imperial manufactories of woollen and linen at Moscow. At Peters burg he established manufactories of articles of luxury, such as mirrors, expensive glass-wares, rich carpets, silks, cotton, &c. In all the larger cities he established at least one manufactory of woollen, linen, and metal, so that at his death there were twenty-one great imperial manufactories, and many smaller ones, partly supported at the public expense. Peter's system was not followed up by his immediate successors, but it was renewed by the empress Elizabeth, and has been steadily adhered to with constantly increasing energy, and the most brilliant success, up to the present time. It may perhaps be questioned whether many branches of manufacture may not have been forced into premature existence, for the protection of which it has been necessary to establish a most rigorous system, entirely prohibitory of many foreign articles, and imposing enormous import duties upon others. This system, it is true, chiefly affects the rich, for whose use foreign goods are imported. The chief seat of manufactures is Moscow and its government; and next the governments of Wladimir, Nischnei Nvogorod, Saratow, and Petersburg. In Poland, the woollen, linen, and leather manufactures attained great prosperity under Alexander. In 1828 there were in the empire 6000 manufactories, with 250,000 workmen, and in 1831 there were 100 with steamengines. The exhibitions of the productions of Russian manufactures which have taken place within these few years at Petersburg and Moscow have greatly contributed to excite emulation. But the prices of most of the articles of Russian manufacture are still higher than in most other European countries. In general too the Russian workman finds it difficult to give to his work a high degree of perfection. He is indeed very clever, and imitates with wonderful facility, but as he attends mainly to external appearance, his works are deficient in quality and durability. There are exceptions undoubtedly, but it must not be forgotten that most of the manufactories have foreigners at their head. The Report of the department of manufactures for 1839 published in 1840 (that for 1840 has not appeared) contains the following statements:

Agriculture. Notwithstanding the variety and great abundance of the natural productions of the Russian empire, agriculture may be said to be even now in its first stage, since there is certainly no province which yields ever half of what it is capable of producing. Hence in the greater part of the empire it is not so much the ground itself that has any value, as the labouring populaLion, and accordingly it is not the number of acres in an estate that is considered, but that of the male serfs attached to it. The Southern Baltic provinces, the governments nearest to Moscow, and the kingdom of Poland, have the greatest proportion of cultivated land, and the best system of cultisation, but it is only on a few estates that it approximates to that of Northern Germany; yet even in these provinces there are extensive tracts in which not one-fifteenth part of the surface is cultivated. The thinness of the population, and the want of a market in the interior of the empire, contribute to prolong this state of things; for where there is little demand for corn, agriculture languishes, however bountiful nature may be, especially when, as is here the case, the inhabitants are satisfied with having a sufficiency of the necesaries of life, and are too little advanced in the scale of civililation to have any desire for the comforts or luxuries of a more refined state of society. The whole area of European Russia is (according to Schubert) 1,742,435,725 Prussian acres, of which about 676,000,000 acres are covered with forests and shrubs: about 771,000,000 acres are to be reckoned wholly unproductive, 246,500,000 acres at the most as arable land, and 24,500,000 acres as meadow land. Of the remaining land, not even a rough estimate can be given, for want of all data respecting it in most of the governments. Un account of the comparatively small value of land, and the sant of manure, the fields in Great and Little Russia are often suffered to be fallow for two or three years. The times I sowing and harvest are regulated according to the climate. The usual kinds of corn are grown in most of the governinents, viz. rye, wheat of many different species, barley, and ats; maize, chiefly in the countries about the Black Sea, but is not a general article of food. The kind of pulse most ultivated is peas, which succeed up to 62° N. lat. Millet is rown about Tula, hemp chiefly in Little Russia. Flax and mp are cultivated in the Baltic provinces, and in West Russia. Hops flourish in Poland and in Little Russia. The altivation of the grasses is neglected. Schubert judges om the official averages for several years, and from the tables of the quantity produced, that after deducting the serve of seed-corn, and that used in the breweries, the distilleries, and for feeding cattle, besides the quantity exried, there remain (in European Russia) about fifteen Winchester bushels per head. Between 1830 and 1841 there have been several years in which the harvests have aled, and instead of exporting, it has been necessary to allow the importation of corn free of duty. This is at present the P. C., No. 1262.

The progress of manufactures in Russia has been so ex tremely rapid for some time past, as to excite general atten tion. The partial failure of the crops in some seasons, though it certainly had some effect on the inland trade, did not prevent an increase in the number of manufactories and of the workmen employed in them. The years 1835, 1836, and 1837 were more favourable to the development of the national manufactures; we have seen an increase of activity in all the provinces of our vast empire, and the progress made has far exceeded the most sanguine expectations. To give our readers an idea of it, it will suffice to say that in VOL. XX.-2 K

the year 1838 the number of new manufactories was 405. | Romna, second, 24,661,026; Charkow, first, 20,360,360; As we have not yet received all the accounts for 1839, we Charkow, second, 17,386,235; Charkow, third, 6,281,665; cannot state the number of new manufactories established Kursk, 21,401,630; Korsun, 2,969,023; Rostoff, 13,860,476; in that year, but there is no doubt that it was as considerable Sumy, first, 6,506,900; Sumy, second, 5,204,000; Saratow, as in the year preceding. 2,722,800; Simbirsk, 5,101,300; Tambow, first, 1,821,50 Tambow, second, 1,465,800; Taganrog, 2,030,781; Jakutza 1,593,671; Lebedjan, first, 2,143,416; Lebedjan, secon 2,334,955; Penza, 1,774,970; Nischnei-Lomoff, 1,928,970 The total amount is 353,894,722 rubles in bank assigns s which, reckoning the ruble at 10d. English, is nearly 1. millions and a half sterling.'