Latin Chronicle in France; Wace's 'Le Brut,' a metrical | formerly subject to Rome, while the Northern conqueron romance concerning the fabulous history of England, in the Goths, Franks, Burgundians, Langobards, &c., spor Norman French; 'Le Roman du Rou,' by the same writer, their own language or dialects, which are called by chr concerning Rollo and his successors; and 'I Reali di Francia,' clers of the times lingua Teutonica' or Teutisca.' Th in Italian prose. To these may be added the Latin romance conquered people were called by the general name of R of Gualtieri, found in the Chronicle of La Novalesa, which mans, from whence came the name of the language, wh relates to the wars of Attila; next in order of date comes was also called vulgaris.' In course of time however th Guido della Colonna's War of Troy,' and Mathew Paris's conquerors adopted the language of the conquered, wh account of the Round Table. [GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH.] being more instructed, furnished most of the priests 2 The Roman de la Rose' was written under St. Louis of scholars of the age. But the language thus adopted by b France. At that time chivalry was established over all the conquering and the conquered races, although essenta Europe, and the writers of romance introduced the customs formed of Latin elements, differed according to the var and manners of chivalry into their narratives of events, localities and the greater or lesser degree of admixture a real or supposed, long antecedent to the existence of chi- the northern people with the Roman population. F valry. instance, King Dagobert in the seventh century publishe The vast subject of romantic literature, in its general and a statute, styled Lex Alamannorum,' for the use of t more extended sense, may be divided into the following German tribes who had crossed the Rhine, the language branches:-1, Romantic ballads and traditional songs, which which differs from that of the 'Lex Ripuariorum,' which t appears to be the oldest form, and which have existed among same king published for the use of the people situat most nations in their primitive state. The songs of the between the Lower Rhine and the Mosa, who were most antient bards, and those concerning Arminius, which are of old Roman extraction. The former employs the A mentioned by Tacitus (Annal., ii. 88, and German., 2); the as an article before substantives, in imitation of the artic German Niebelungen; the poems of Antar, and others sa and der used by the Goths and Franks in their own l before the era of Mohammed; the song of Roland, men- guage; but the Lex Ripuaria does not employ ille for the tioned by the chroniclers of Charlemagne; and the old same purpose. In the old charters of Italy and Spain of Spanish romantic ballads, all belong to this class. M. de the eighth and ninth centuries, we find ille and ipse es Tressan collected several fragments among the moun- ployed likewise as articles, ipsa ecclesia, illa alia, illas cana taineers of the Pyrenees, which seem to belong to Roland's illa strada, illo rio, &c.; but these charters are not so Cantilena,' or war song. 2, The narrative romances of by a century or two as the Franco-Latin documents, chivalry concerning the deeds of Arthur and the peers of which those pronouns are introduced for a similar purpose. the Round Table. 3, The romances concerning the sup- The oldest document in the España Sagrada' in which t posed wars of Charlemagne against the Saracens. 4, The ille appears as an article is A.D. 775; and the oldest of thes Spanish and Portuguese romances concerning the fabulous of Italy quoted by Muratori are of the years 713 and 736. exploits of Amadis and Palmerin. [AMADIS DE GAULA.] Of the various dialects thus formed, that of the south 5, The classic romances concerning Jason, Hercules, France, called afterwards Langue d'Oc, became a refire Alexander, those heroes having been transformed into language sooner than the others, and retained its superior knights of chivalry. 6, The epic romances of the Italians from the tenth to the thirteenth century, when the Itala in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. [PULCI.] 7, Portuguese, and Spanish languages assumed a regular gra The spiritual or religious romances concerning the matical and literary form, which they have retained; wh miracles of saints and the death of martyrs, such as the the Romance of the south of France has gradually fa 'Contes dévots' of the French, the 'Golden Legend,' &c. into disuse, having given way to the Northern Frers. 8, The pastoral romance, which Cervantes ridiculed, and Langue d'Oil or d'Oui. The latter appears to have org which afterwards gave rise in the seventeenth century to nally differed little from the Langue d'Oc, but it gradu the interminable and dull romances of La Calprenède, changed its terminations, and assumed other peculiarite Madame de Scudery, and others, in which perfection of of form, which have been retained by the modern Frene beauty and pure spiritual love are the chief ingredients. It is demonstrated by Raynouard that the inhabitants 9, The comic romances, which were written chiefly as Northern France in the ninth century spoke the same la parodies of the heroic and chivalrous romances. Such were guage as those of the south. The text of the oath taken t those of Rabelais, Cervantes, Mendoza, and Scarron. 10, Strasburg in the year 842, by Louis, called the German. The political romances, such as Télémaque, Sethos, &c. before the French people, would alone be a sufficient pra 11, Lastly comes the modern novel, which forms a distinct of this. The text of this curious document is as followsspecies, as it does not deal in the marvellous and super-Pro Deo amur et pro Christian poplo, et nostro comm.. natural, but represents men conformably to the manners of salvament, dist di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir the age in which they lived. dunat, si salvara jeo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in adjudh et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradre saa dist, in o quid il mi altre si fazet, et ab Ludher nul pia. nunquam prindrai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle ? damno sit.' (Roquefort, Glossaire de la Langue Roma Paris, 1808, Introduction.') The library of romance is extremely numerous; bibliographical catalogues of those of a particular class and nation have been published, such as Count Melzi's Bibliografia dei Romanzi e Opere di Cavalleria in Italiano,' Milan, 1838. The Spaniards have several collections of their old romances: Poesias escogidas de nuestros Cancioneros y Romanceros antiguos,' Madrid, 1796; Depping, Colleccion de los mas celebres Romances antiguos Españoles, historicos y caballerescos,' Londres, 1825; Romancero del Cid Ruy Diaz, en lenguage antiguo, recopilado por Juan de Escobar, Madrid, 1818. Dr. Ferrario has published a good work on the Italian romances of chivalry: 'Storia ed Analisi degli antichi Romanzi di Cavalleria, e dei Poemi Romanzeschi d'Italia, con Dissertazioni sull' Origine, sugl' Istituti, sulle Ceremonie dei Cavalieri, con Figure tratte dai Monumenti dell' Arte, 4 vols. 8vo., Milan, 1828-9. A notice of Ferrario's work appeared in the Foreign Quarterly Review,' No. XII., October, 1830. Panizzi, in the first or introductory volume of his edition of Boiardo, London, 1830, has elaborately investigated the origin and history of the romances of chivalry. Turner, in his History of the Anglo-Saxons,' Ritson, in his Historical Essay on National Songs,' Dunlop, in his 'History of Romantic Fiction,' and others, have treated of the history of romance in various countries. ROMANCE LANGUAGE (Langue Romane' or Romande,' in French) is the name given to a kind of bastard Latin, which came into common use in Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire, among the populations ་ The gradual process by which the corrupt Latin spek in the provinces of Western and Southern Europe in sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries was transformed the Romance languages of the ninth and tenth centuries. very clearly exhibited by Raynouard, in his Elémens de . Grammaire de le Langue Romane avant l'an 1000. B Latin cases had become neglected or confused, and to suppo their place the prepositions de served to denote the g tive and ad the dative. The next step was to cut off final syllable of the noun, and so to make it indeclinab Thus the accusative abbatem became abbat; majesta. Į majestat; ardentem, ardent; amantem, amant; and >> forth. The accusatives in ionem were reduced to ion, n gionem, religion, &c. When the suppression of the Lar termination left two harsh-sounding consonants at the e: of the word, a euphonic vowel was added, arbitr-um,**** bitr-e.' The pronouns ille and ipse had been used in the corrupt Latin as auxiliary to substantives: 'Dono illas vinca quomodo ille rivulus currit;' 'Illa medietate de ipsa p cione,' &c. From ille so used originated the Romance an cles el, lo, la, and from ipse the demonstrative pronouns so or su, and sa, which the Sardinian dialect has retain.. to this day as an article. These articles were declined wx: the prepositions de and a Ego Hugo della Roca;' Fx satum de la vite;' 'Villam nostram quæ vocatur al la Cor- | baria,' &c. These and other examples taken from documents of the ninth century show the introduction of articles even in the written language which affected to preserve in some degree the Latin form; the change must have been more rapid and complete in the spoken or popular idiom. Other changes took place in the pronouns and the verbs, for which we refer to Raynouard's Elémens. The use of the auxiliary verb aver, habere,' already existed in the Latin, in a certain form: De Cæsare satis hoc tempore dictum habebo' (Cicero, Philip V., 28); Si habes jam statutum quod tibi agendum putes' (Epist. ad Famil., iv. 2). The Latin also used the auxiliary esse' in some tenses of the passive. The Romance language only made the use of these auxiliaries more general. · After A.D. 1000 the Romance language may be considered as having become fully formed, and the age of the Troubadours began. William, count of Poictiers, is one of the earliest whose works have been preserved. In the twelfth century the institution of the Courts of Love was established. That century was the brilliant age of Romance poetry, and in the same Wace wrote in North or Norman French his Roman du Rou.' In the thirteenth century the war and massacre of the Albigenses, and the establishment of the Inquisition, frightened away many of the adepts of 'la gaya ciencia;' and afterwards several other events, such as the accession of the house of Anjou or Provence to the throne of Naples, and the encroachments of the northern French, contributed to the decline of the Troubadour poetry, and at the same time of the Romance language. The Italian or Tuscan rose upon its decay. When Dante appeared, the decline had already begun, and it was completed during the first part of the fourteenth century. (Raynouard, Choix de Poesies Originales des Troubadours; Professor Diez, Leben und Werke der Troubadours, Zwickau, 1829.) In the fifteenth century king René made some attempts at reviving the poetry of the Langue d'Oc, but the race of the Troubadours was now extinct, and the only result of his endeavours was the collecting and compiling the lives of the old Troubadours by the monk of the isles of Hyeres, Le Monge des Isles d'Or. In Eastern Spain also the Inquisition destroyed many MSS. in the Limosin or Valencian language, as being suspected of containing heresy. In 1434 the library of the Marquis de Villena at Barcelona was burnt on suspicion of containing sorcery. (Ferrario, Storia ed Analisi degli antichi Romanzi, &c.) Various political and social circumstances had contributed to give to the Langue d'Oc that early refinement in an age of comparative ignorance and barbarism which is still a matter of surprise to philologists and historical inquirers. The provinces of Southern France had not, like Italy and the northern parts of France, been overrun by a succession of barbarians; they had not been exposed to the ravages of the Sclavonians, the Huns, and the Danes. The Burgundians and the Visigoths, who had settled there nearly about the same time, were more civilised than the other German races; they amalgamated themselves gradually and quietly with the old inhabitants, and they applied to agricultural pursuits, which a fertile soil and a happy climate rendered pleasant and productive. The country suffered no subsequent invasion from the northern tribes, and the victory of Charles Martel in the plains of Tours arrested the advance of the Saracens from the west. Southern France was, it is true, subjugated by the Franks, who had occupied the countries north of the Loire, but the Franks had by that time formed themselves into a regular monarchy under Pepin and Charlemagne, and were no longer unruly barbarians. During the decline and imbecility of the later princes of the Carlovingian dynasty, Southern France became a separate and independent state, of which duke Bozon, an active and vigorous man, became monarch, and the kingdom of Arles or Provence extended over the whole south of France. The descendants of Bozon retained their sovereignty for more than two hundred years; and when the male line ended in 1092, in the person of Count Gillibert, his states became the dowry of his daughters, of whom the elder, Douce, heiress of Provence, was married in the year 1112, to Raymond Berenger, count of Barcelona, and her sister Stephanie married the count of Toulouse. A treaty, concluded in 1125, between the counts of Barcelona and Toulouse, fixed the division of the states of Gillibert between them. Another powerful baron, the count of Poitiers, became duke of Aquitaine or Guyenne, which afterwards P. C., No. 1241. came by marriage into the possession of Henry II. of England. These three states, Barcelona, Toulouse, and Guienne included the whole country in which the Langue d'Oc was spoken. The union of Provence with Catalonia introduced into the former country a taste for poetry and chivalry, which was fostered in Spain by the Moors. The maritime towns of Catalonia and Provence carried on a lucrative trade all over the Mediterranean, and Catalonian armaments took an active part in the Eastern wars between the Greeks, the Normans, and the Saracens. All these circumstances contributed to refine the manners of the people as well as their language, and the singular institution of the Courts of Love gave a peculiar turn to their poetry. [TROUBADOURS.] The Langue d'Oil, or Northern French, also called sometimes Norman French, having become the language of the court and capital of the kingdom of France, gradually encroached upon the Langue d'Oc, as the various provinces south of the Loire became incorporated with the monarchy. From the 13th century downwards, the edicts and ordinances of the French kings being issued in the Langue d'Oil, were forwarded, either in the original or translated into Latin, te the provinces of the south. The writers of Northern France, the Trouvères, refined their own language, and found encouragement at court, which was not extended to the writers in the langue d'Oc. Ronsard, who was a native of the south, in his 'Abregé de l'Art Poetique,' complains of this: Now that our France is all subject to one king, we are obliged, if we wish to attain honour or fame, to speak his language, else our works, however honourable and perfect, would be thought little of, or might perhaps be altogether despised and neglected. With the invention of printing, copies of the works in the Langue d'Oil were speedily multiplied, while those of the Troubadours remained mostly in MSS. confined to a few libraries. In the 16th century it was enacted that all public acts and deeds should be written in French. The Langue d'Oc, being thus restricted to the mere purposes of a domestic idiom, degenerated into various pâtois or dialects. Still there appeared, here and there, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, several native poets who wrote with spirit and humour in their respective patois, such as Lesage, a Languedocian, whose burlesque and frequently licentious poems were published at Montpelier: 'Les Folies de le Sage,' 1650; Ader, Lou Gentilhomme Gascoun,' Toulouse, 1610, and 'Lou Catounet Gascon,' 1611; a version of Homer's 'Ba trachomyomachia,' in Gascon, La Granoul-Batromacbio,' Toulouse, 1664; 'La Pastourale (a comedy in 4 acts) deu Paysan que cerque mestié a son hils,' in the dialect of Béarn, by Fondeville de Lescar, Pau, 1767; L'Embarras de la Fieiro de Beaucaire,' by Michel, Amsterdam, 1700; Actes du Synode de la Sainte Reformation,' Montpellier, 1599, a satire against the Calvinists, by Reboul, a witty but profligate adventurer, who was at last executed at Rome, under Pope Paul V., in September, 1611, in conscquence of his undiscriminating satirical propensity; Lou Banquet,' par Augié, Gaillard, Paris, 1583; the 'Jardin deys Musos Provençales,' Aix, 1628; &c. In Spain the Latin language became corrupted, though perhaps less rapidly and at a later date than in Italy and France, which is proved by the fact that during the eighth and ninth centuries masters were procured from the Peninsula to teach that language in Italy. It is another evidence of this, that till the beginning of the 12th century, Latin, though corrupt, was the only language used among the Christian population of the Peninsula, not only in the acts of the cortes and councils, but also in the municipal fueros, the public edicts, diplomas, testaments, and the writings of au thors. It was also the language of the tribunals, until San Fernando, about the middle of the 13th century, caused the 'Liber Judicum' to be translated into the vulgar tongue. The corrupt Latin of Spain gave rise to the Catalonian and Valencian, the old Portuguese or Galician, and the Castilian or modern Spanish. The last two, and especially the Castilian, received a considerable admixture of Arabic words (said to be about 2000 in the Spanish language), from which the Catalonian remained comparatively free. The process of corruption of the Latin into Romance was the same as in France and Italy, and may be traced even in the writings of the clergy, who professed to use the literary language of the country. Elipando, bishop of Toledo, a man of learning for the time, who strongly opposed the introduction into Spain of the tenets of the supremacy and infallibility of the Roman see, writes to Felix, bishop of Urgel, in the following style Domino Felice, sciente vos VOL. XX.-M reddo quia vestro scripto accepi....direxi vobis scriptum [ an i, especially of the Romance participles in ent; dorms parvum de fratre Militane ... ego vero direxi epistolam servint, fugint, premint: it adds a final u to some inte tuam ad Cordoba,' &c. tions of the verbs, &c. The Catalonian has retained the affic of the Romance, of which the following are specime taken from the poems of Ausias March, the Valenca: troubadour: It is impossible to fix the epochs of the origin of the various languages of the Spanish Peninsula. The Catalonian and Galician or old Portuguese appear to be the oldest. The Castilian, notwithstanding the assertion of Bouterwek to the contrary, was not formed in the eleventh century; its oldest existing monument, the poem of El Cid,' is not older than the year 1206. Previous to the twelfth century the Galician, or old Portuguese, appears to have prevailed in all western Spain. An old MS. Cancioneiro in this dialect, belonging to the library of the Royal College of the Nobles at Lisbon, of which Sir Charles Stuart obtained a copy, which he communicated to Raynouard, speaks of the Galician dialect as being spoken in Galicia and in Portugal, as far south as Coimbra, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, after which the Portuguese grew into a separate and polished dialect, which was much in use for poetry among Galicians and Castilians as well as Portuguese. (Raynouard, Grammaire Comparée, Discours Préliminaire.') Mottram la llum de vera esperança, Be ns mostra Deu lo mon que vol finir, The popular patois or dialects of the south of France, afte In the 'Elucidação das Palavras, Termos, e Frases que em Portugal antiguamente se usárao,' 2 vols. fol., Lisbon, 1798, are other specimens of old Portuguese or Galician compositions. The original text of the Amadis de Gaula,' by Vasco de Lobeira, which is lost, was written in the same language. The Catalonian dialect became early a literary language, and as such subject to fixed grammatical rules; it has its grammars and dictionaries, a great number of printed books, and a still greater number in MS. It had its historians; among others an anonymous historian of Catalonia, mentioned by Zurita in his Chronicas de Aragon;' Bernard de Sclot, who lived in the thirteenth century, and wrote a history of the principality of Catalonia and of the Aragonese kings subsequent to the junction of the two states; and King Jayme I. of Aragon, who wrote an account of his own reign, which has been published under the following title: Chronica o Commentari del gloriosissim e invictissim Rey Jacme Rey d'Aragó de Mallorques e de Valencia, Compte de Barcelona e de Urgell, e de Muntpellier, escrita per aquell en sa lingua natural, e treita del Archiu del molt With regard to the antient Langue d'Oc, or Langu magnifich Rational de la insigue Ciutat de Valencia, hon Romane, the most refined of all the southern dialects, bi estava custodita,' Valencia, 1557. King Jayme also wrote a which may be considered now as a dead language, it was ill book de la Saviesa' on wisdom,' quoted by Nicolaus An-trated in the last century, in Italy, by Bastero, La Cruse: ↑ tonio, in his Bibliotheca Vetus.' The Catalonian is rich in Provenzale;' and in France, by L'Abbé Millot, Histor poetry, which was introduced into the Peninsula by the Littéraire des Troubadours,' who compiled his work from the troubadours of Provence and Languedoc. Alonso II. of voluminous MS. folios of M. de Sainte Palaye. In t Aragon, in the twelfth century, is numbered among its poets, present century, Raynouard has been the most industrious as well as Guillermo de Berguedan, a Catalonian noble, who and most successful investigator of the Romance languag lived in the following century, and some of whose verses are and literature. preserved in a MS. in the Vatican library. Mosen Pero March, Jacme March, Mosen Jorde, Mosen Febler, and Ausias March of Valencia, rank also among the Catalonian, Aragonese, and Valencian troubadours. [TROUBADOURS.] The languages of Aragon and Valencia, in the time of the Aragonese monarchy, may be considered as one and the same with the Catalonian. It is worthy of remark, that at the end of the 13th century, when the Castilian language had already gained the preponderance in a great part of Spain, we find a controversial conference between the Jews of Granada and some Christian missionaries from Castile, carried on in the Catalonian language, which appears to have been vernacular at Granada. (Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Barcelona, i., p. 615.) In the same Memoirs (p. 613) it is stated that the bishop of Orense, having been requested to examine what analogy there might be between the vulgar Galician and the Catalonian, answered, that there were in both, not only nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech quite identical, but also entire phrases. And Terreros (in his 'Paleography') and others have stated, that the language of Asturias is the same as that of Galicia, bating the difference of pronunciation. The Catalonian, observes Raynouard, is the living language which most resembles the old Romance of the troubadours, and that of the Valdenses of Pignerol in Piedmont is the next. The following are among the shades of difference between the Catalonian and the Romance:-1, The Romance substantives and adjectives ending in an, en, in, and un, add in Catalonian the euphonic final vowel y; affan, affany, estran, estrany, &c. The plural feminine in as is changed into es. The Catalonian often changes the s into an x; ari, puir: it doubles the at the beginning and at the end of words; aquell, lloch, lluny: it sometimes changes the e into In Italy, the dialect of the valleys of Pignerol, or of the Valdenses, has most affinity to the old Romance. [VALDEN I SES.] The Piedmontese, which is a written language, a is spoken by all classes of people, bears also considerataĮ affinity to the modern Romance dialects of Southera France, and we have heard it stated that natives of La3guedoc can understand those of Piedmont with ease. [PIEDMONT] Dr. Pipino published a Piedmontese grammar, Turin, 1783; and Ponza published, in 1827-8, a D. tionary, Piedmontese and Italian. The language of Na is also a corrupt dialect of the Langue d'Oc. [NICE.] With regard to the other North Italian or Lomba dialects, they differ more or less from the old Romance lar guage, though they had a common and perhaps coeva origin with it, and resemble it more than the Italian f Tuscan. The Langue d'Oc, having been formed chief from a corrupt and provincial Latin, as well as the dialers of Italy, reduced its materials to a regular form sooner thi they; and having become a polished and literary language, the Italians in their turn borrowed at second-hand from it. Raynouard, in his 'Grammaire Comparée,' observes that the dialect of Ferrara is one of those which has retained more completely the forms of the Romance with the least mixture. That of Bergamo comes perhaps the next affinity: it often changes the e into o; for example, inste of el, del (Romance), it has made ol, dol. The dialects Bologna and Mantua abound with contractions and aphas reses, which render them very harsh; they have taken aw the t of the Romance terminations in at, it, ut. The Mila ese has a broad pronunciation, and many double towelchanging into aa, ii, and uu, the Romance terminations i at, it and ut; veritaa, servii, avuu, &c.: it also changes re into er; noster, sepolcher, for the Romance nostre, sepolchre, The dialects of Western Switzerland, Vaud, Neuchâtel, Geneva, part of Freyburg, and Lower Valais, and also of Savoy, have retained to this day the name of patois Romand, or Langue Romande. Western Switzerland, as far as the Aar, was occupied in the decline of the Roman empire by the Burgundians, a less rude tribe than the Alemanni, who settled in Eastern Switzerland. The Burgundians shared the land with the native population of Roman, Helvetian, or Allobrogic race; they applied themselves to agriculture, and soon constituted themselves into a well regulated and orderly monarchy. They gradually adopted the provincial Latin which they found in use in the country, and from the corruption of which several Romance dialects were formed, which resembled those of the South of France that were formed through a similar process. Some of the dialects of Western Switzerland approximate in their inflexions to the Northern French, or Langue d'Oil, whilst others, like that of Gruyère in the canton of Freyburg, bear more affinity to the Romance of the south, and consequently to the Italian. Specimens of both are contained in Stalder's Dialektologie,' and also in the collection of Ranz des Vaches, both in German and Romance, Sammlung von Schweizer Kuhreihen und Volksliedern,' Bern, 1818. To this day, Switzerland is divided, by language, races, and habits, into German and Romande, and the Germans call the latter by the general name of Wälschland. The dialects of the Venetian territory, with the exception | the other languages and dialects of Western and Southern of that of Friuli, are more remote from the Romance in their Europe, which he styles 'Neo-Latin.' 1, The use of artiformation, as are likewise still more so the dialects south cles to determine the cases, instead of their being designated of the Apennines, or of Southern Italy. We cannot here by the termination of the word as in Latin. This characenlarge upon the multifarious subject of the Italian dialects, teristic is found in all the modern languages derived from but must refer the inquisitive reader to their grammars, vo- the Latin. 2 and 3 relate to the terminations of words, cabularies, and other works,, and also to an article in the especially nouns, of which Raynouard gives comparative Quarterly Journal of Education, No. x., in which are given tables in the various languages. 4 is peculiar to the old specimens of composition in each; and also to an article in Romance, but existed also in the Northern French till the the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. ix., 1829, on the dialects fourteenth century. It consists in placing an s at the end of Southern Italy. of substantives in the singular, when they stand as subjects; the absence of the s shows they were used in the objective case. In the plural it was the reverse, the absence of the s designated the nominative. The Northern French dropped the s generally in the singular, and gave it to the plural without distinction. 5 refers to other terminations employed by the old Romance, especially in proper names, to distinguish the subject from the object. 6 concerns the gender of the adjectives. 7 concerns the degrees of comparison. 8 is on the Romance affixes representing personal pronouns, ous, os, m, x, which are also met with in the old French and old Spanish, and also in some rustic dialects of France, in the Catalonian, and in some north Italian dialects. 9, The pronoun altre as an expletive added to the personal pronoun. This has been adopted by all the Neo-Latin languages of Europe; vous autres, vos otros, vos outros, voi altri, &c. 10, Relative pronouns qui, que, lo qual. 11, The indefinite pronoun om, derived from the Latin homo, which the French has retained in on. The Spanish and Portuguese, which formerly employed ome in the same sense, have since substituted se, and the Italians si. 12 concerns the use in the conjugations of the auxiliary verbs aver, ester, and estar, which have been adopted, with some modifications, by all the other Romance languages. 13 and 14 concern the formation of the future and the conditional. 15 concerns the participles in ut, of which the French has made u. 16 concerns the double formation of participles of the same verb, such as rot and romput, defet and defendat, eleit and elegit, &c. 17, the compound passive formed of the auxiliary esser and the participle past, which has been substituted in all cases for the Latin simple passive form. 18 concerns the verbs used impersonally. 19, The infinitive with the negative, used as an imperative. The Italian has retained it: Non parlare:' speak not. 20, The various uses of the conjunction que. 21, Formation of adverbs from the feminine adjective by adding the affix ment, which has been adopted by all the other languages derived from the Latin. 22, The expletives pas, mica, gaire, &c., added to the negative particle to give it greater emphasis. This form is retained by the French in pas, and by the Italians in mica and guari. 23 concerns the appellations Romans, Romance, Roumonch, Romanza, which were used by the old French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese writers to designate their respective idioms; an appellation which serves to show their common origin. In the country of the Grisons, or antient Rhæti, one half of the people speak a language called Rumonsch, which is an Italian dialect of very antient formation, supposed by some to be derived from the language of the Etruscans, who emigrated to those valleys about 600 years B.C.; but this is a mere conjecture. The Rumonsch is a written language, and books have been published in it. MSS. eight or nine centuries old existed at the end of the last century, and perhaps some still exist in the convent of Disentis. The dialect of the Engadina, or valley of the Inn, is called Ladin: it has still greater affinity to the Italian or Lombard dialects. Specimens of Rumonsch and Ladin are found in the Appendix to Vieusseux's History of Switzerland,' published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Raynouard observes that the Rumonsch has the affixes and other essential forms of the Romance language, though it is disfigured by an admixture of Northern or Teutonic orthography and pronunciation. It often dds a g to the end of words; filg, volg, haig, testamaing, For the Romance fil, vol, hai, testament. The following specimens of the Lord's Prayer, in the various dialects which are nearest to the old Romance, may convey some notion of their respective shades of variation as well as of their common origin: Old Provençal, from 'L'Arbre d'Amor,' A.D. 1288. Ton nom tia sanctificat; A nos venga lo teu regnat; En la terra facha sia, Quo el Cel, voluntat tia. La Pa nostre cotidia If we take the appellation of Romance language in its most extended sense, all the languages and dialects of Western Europe, that is to say, of Italy, Western Switzerland, the Grisons, France, and Spain, may be called Romance, being derived essentially from the Roman or Latin, and having been formed after the fall of the Western Empire. The Basque and the Armorican or language of Lower Britanny belong to a different family. The Walloon of Liège and the Valachian are also Romance languages. The Valachian resembles the others, though less perhaps in its grammatical forms than in the etymology of the words. Raynouard hows the analogy existing between them all in their gramnatical construction and etymology in his 'Grammaire Comparée des Langues de l'Europe Latine.' But if we ake the word Romance in its more restricted sense, as having been especially applied to the language of the trouadours, or Langue d'Oc, we must consider it as confined to Modern Provençal, from a Collection of Dialects published he south of France, and the eastern provinces of Spain as far as Murcia; and it is there that we find its legitimate offspring in the languages of Catalonia, Valencia, and Majorca, and in the Languedocian, Provencal, and Valdenses dialects. Raynouard, at the conclusion of his Grammaire Comparée' of the languages of Latin or Roman Europe, enumerates twenty-three special characteristics in the construction of the Romance language, most of which occur also in Huei nos dona, Dieus, de ta ma; Que nos als autres remetem; at Paris, as quoted by Adelung. Nouastre Paire que sias oou Ciele; que vouastre noum siegue santificat; que vouastre rouyaoume nous arribe; que voustre voulountà siegue facho su la terro, coumo din lou Ciele: dounas nou encui noustre pan de cade jou; pardounas noue noustrei ooufensos, coumo leï pardounan a n'aqueleï que nous an ooufensas; e nou leïssez pa sucoumba a la tentation; mai delivra nous doou maou. M 2 Balearic of Mallorca, from Adelung. Pare nostro que estau en los Cels; sia santificat lo vostro sant nom; vingue a nos altres el vostro sant regne; fases, Señor, la vostra voluntad aixi en la terra com se fa en lo Cel. El nostro pa de cada dia daunolos, Señor, en lo dia de vuy; y perdonaunos nostras culpas, aixi com nos altres perdonam a nostros deudors, y dellivraunos, Señor, de tot mal. Valencian, from Hervas's Collection in Adelung. Pare nostre que estas en lo Cel; santificad siga el teu nom; venga a nos el teu reine; fagas la teua voluntad aicsi en la terra com en el Cel. El pa nostre de cada die daunoste gui. Y perdonaunos les nostres deudes aicsi com nos otros perdonam a nostres deudores; y no nos deicses caure en la tentacio; mes lliuranos de mal. Sardinian of Cagliari and other Towns, from Adelung. Pare nostru qui istas in sos Quelos; Siat sanctificadu su Nomen teu; vengat a nois su regnu teu; fasase sa voluntat tua axi comen su quelu gasi in terra. Lo pa nostru de dognia die da nos hoe; i dexia a nos altres sos deppitos nostros comente nosateros dexiam als deppitores nostros; i no nos induescas in sa tentatio; ma livra nos de male. Sardinian Rustic. Babbu nostra sughale ses in sos Chelus, santufiada su nomine tuo; bengiad su rennu tuo; faciadsi sa voluntade tua, comenti in Chelo gasi in terra. Su pane nostru de ognie die da nos lu hoe; et lassa a nos ateros is deppidos nostrus gasi comente nos ateros lassaos a sos deppitores nostros; e non nos portis in sa tentassione; impero libera nos de su male. Gallego or Galician, from Hervas's Collection, No. 295. Padre nostro que estas no Ceo; Santificado sea o tea nome; venja a nos outros o teu renjo; fagase a tua voluntade asi na terra come no Ceo. O pan nostro de cada dia danolo oje; e perdonainos as nostras deudas, asi come nos outros perdonaimos aos nostros deudores; e non nos deixes cair na tentazon; mas libra nos de male. Portuguese. Padre nosso que stas nos Ceos, Sanctificado seja o teu nome; venha a nos o teu reino; sea feita a tua vontade assi nos Ceos come na terra. O pao nosso de cada dia da nos oje; e perdoa a nos, Senhor, a nossas dividas assi como nos perdoamos aos nossos dividores; e nao nos dexes cahir in tentação; mas libra nos do mal. Valdenses of the year 1100, from Leger. O tu lo noste Payre, local sies en li Cel; lo tio Nom sia sanctifica; lo tio regne venga; la toa voluntà sia fayta en ayma illi es fayta al Cel, sia fayta en la terra; dona nos la nostre pan quotidian enchoy; pardonna a nos li nostre debit e pecca, coma nos perdonnen a li nostre debitors o offendadors; non nos amenar en tentation; ma delivra nos del mal. Modern Piedmontese. (This dialect has adopted in a great degree the pronunciation of the northern or modern French.) Padre nöst, ch't ses in Ciel; Santificà sia l' to nom; vegna a noi l' to regn; s' fassa la tua volontà com in Ciel cosi in terra; dane encue l' nöst pan di tut i di'; perdona a noi i nöst debit com noi perdonoma ai nost debitor; lasne nen casché en t' la tentasion; ma librene dal mal. teis reginom vegna nan proa; tia voellga dvainta s' con in tschel, usché eir in terra; nos paun d' minchiadi da a nus hoz, e perdunains nos debitts sco eir nus ils perdunan als noss debittadurs; en 'nus manar in provamaint; mo spendra ons dal mal. ROMA'NO, GIULIO. [GIULIO ROMANO.] ROMANS, a town in the south of France, in the department of Drôme, 10 miles north-east of Valence, on a cross road from that town to Grenoble, and 362 miles from Paris by Lyon, Vienne, and Valence. The town owes its origin to a monastery founded by St. Bernard, A.D. 837: in trade in woollen cloth, which was exported even into Asia; the sixteenth century it was the centre of a considerable but the religious wars of that period combined with the ravages of pestilence to diminish its prosperity. It is still however a place of considerable trade, and the activity which prevails in it contrasts strongly with the dulness of the neighbouring town of Valence. Romans is in a flat district on the right or north bank of the Isère, by which t is separated from the little town of Le Péage du Pizançon, now called Le Bourg-du-Péage, which is virtually a subur of Romans, and is joined to it by a handsome bridge. Romans is surrounded with an antient wall flanked with towers and defended by a ditch: it is an ill-built town, destitute of any remarkable edifices, except the parish church, which was antiently the church of the monastery founded by St. Bernard. The population in 1831 was 7677 for the town, or 9285 for the whole commune; that of Le Bourgdu-Péage was 3095 for the town, or 3577 for the commune, making 10,772 for the two towns, or 12,862 for the com. mune. The manufactures of Romans are silks, woollen cloths, serges, and other woollen fabrics, worsted hose, and leather: there are oil-presses for walnut-oil, and lime and plaster kilns. The trade of the place comprehends wool, tow, hides, silk, nut-oil, liqueurs which are made in the district, excellent truffles, and wine. There are three fan in the year. Hats and silk goods are made at Péage; where also are dye-houses for cotton and silk, tanyards, ropewalks, and cartwrights' shops. Péage has four fas in the year. Romans has a high school and a tribunal of It was the native place of the unfortunate General Lalley. [PONDICHERRY.] The celebrated Hermitage wines are grown near Romans. commerce. Romans has been almost universally admitted to be the ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. The Epistle to the work of St. Paul. The only sects which have disputed I Cerinthians, and these purely on doctrinal grounds, inas its genuineness are the Ebionites, the Encratites, and the much as the doctrines of this Epistle were adverse to their own opinions. (Stuart's Commen. on the Epis., p. 42) Some modern commentators however have supposed that the Epistle properly ends with the fifteenth chapter, a supposition which may seem plausible from the want of connection between the last chapter and the rest of the Epistle. But this want of connection may be accounted for easily enough, without any such hypothesis. (Stuart, Introd., p. 490 The verses 25-27 inclusive of this last chapter are r some MSS., as in the Codex Alexandrinus, made to follow arrangement. But a doxology of so sublime a character as ver. 23 of cap. xiv., and Griesbach and others give them tha is contained in these verses does not seem a fit conclusiva for a discussion about eating meats or abstaining from them, and accordingly Hug and others agree with the received text in placing them at the close of the Epistle. Some fe MSS. omit them altogether. The words I, Tertius, &c, xvi. 22, imply that this chapter formed the end of the Epistle, and that the Epistle is one. There are however indications in the last chapter that the Epistle received se veral unimportant additions or insertions after it was in the main completed, according as any afterthoughts occurred to the writer, before it was finally dispatched. With respect to the date of the Epistle, various years have been assigned to it, from A.D. 55 to A.D. 58. According to the most probable opinion, it was written towards the end of 57 or in the beginning of 58, when St. Paul was at Co the contribution made by them of Macedonia and Acha rinth, and on the point of setting out to Jerusalem with for the poor saints which were at Jerusalem' and in Judæi (Cap. xv., ver. 25, 26.) The Epistle was dictated in Greek by the Apostle to Tertius, his amanuensis (xvi. 22), and conveyed to the church at Rome by Phoebe (xvi. 1), a servant or deaconess Bap nos chi est n' ils tschels; fat sangt vegna teis nom; of the church at Cenchrea, a place not far from Corinth Rumontsch of the Grisons. |