THE CHANGE OF STYLE.

WE have seen that during the half-century which intervened between 1125 and 1175 an immense number of churches were built or rebuilt in England, and that the art of building consequently made rapid progress, the work becoming every year better executed, more highly finished, and of lighter character, it being one of the characteristics of a good workman not to waste his material. In the early Norman period the masonry was very bad, and, to make the work secure, great masses of material were used; but at the period to which we have now arrived the masonry is as good as at any subsequent period, and the workmen were fast discovering the various modes of economizing their material. This practice, in combination with other causes, tended greatly to introduce the change of style, and to facilitate its ready and rapid adoption, in the generality of cases, when introduced. The custom of vaulting over large spaces, which was now being commonly adopted, and the difficulty of vaulting over spaces of unequal span, also without doubt contributed largely to the use of the pointed arch a.

In the work at Fountains Abbey already mentioned, the aisles are vaulted, and the width of the aisle being greater than the space between the pillars, it follows

• This view was clearly brought out by Dr. Whewell in his ingenious and clever essay on the Churches of Germany (Cambridge 1842, third edition); and although the churches near the Rhine, from which his examples are taken, are of a subsequent date, the principle remains the same. Professor Willis also, in his excellent work on the churches of Italy (1835), had further illustrated the same principle.

that each compartment, or bay, of the vault was not square, but oblong; the greater length being across the aisle, where we have the semicircular arch or arch-ribs to carry the vault, the narrower space being from pillar to pillar towards the choir: we have there the pointed arch, and thus we have a succession of semicircular arches down the length of the aisle, and a range of pointed arches towards the choir: and the same on each side. But although this may account for the use of the pointed arch, it is still quite distinct from the Gothic style; we have it at Fountains in pure Norman work half-a-century before we have the same arrangement again at Canterbury, in the work of William of Sens after the fire. Here, however, we have not only the pointed arch, but it is accompanied by a general change of style,-all the accessories are undergoing a rapid change. The mouldings, the ornaments, the sculpture, and all other details are of a more highly finished and a lighter style.

The introduction of Byzantine or Oriental ornamentation by the Crusaders after their return from the East, had a very marked influence, and contributed greatly to the change of style in England and France. This change began to creep in as early as the end of the eleventh century, as at Carcassonne, where one of the earliest carved capitals is formed of palmleaves, and this was executed before A.D. 1100. This new ornamentation was often added to buildings previously constructed, without rebuilding them, especially in France, as at Bernay in Normandy, S. Remi, Rheims, or Reims, and many other instances. This Byzantine or Oriental ornament did not come into general use until the latter half of the twelfth century. A school of Greek or Oriental sculptors appears to have been formed at Toulouse and in Aquitaine at an earlier period, and to have gradually spread northwards. There is no sculpture, properly so called,—that is,

no under-cutting requiring the skilful use of the chisel,—until late in the twelfth century.

b

The ornaments in late Norman work and in the period of transition often partake very much of a Greek or Byzantine or Oriental character. The foliage is frequently quite Greek, and other features may readily be seen not to be of the usual English or French type, (which at this period are very much alike). The excellent work of the Count de Voguè on the Churches of Syria ", shews distinctly that these ornaments were brought to Europe by the Crusaders on their return, in the middle and latter half of the twelfth century. The Greek character of what we call late Norman ornament has been frequently noticed. The Count also brought to Europe a valuable collection of drawings and photographs from Syria, chiefly from churches of the eighth and ninth centuries, in places deserted ever since the Christian population were annihilated in the Mahomedan invasion, and therefore entirely unaltered. Many other churches also remain in Syria, just as they were left at the time of the Crusaders; many of the details of those churches, of which engravings are published in this work, are identical with those introduced into Europe at that period by the returning Crusaders.

The union of this Oriental character with the Romanesque led by successive steps to the full development of the Gothic style. But this was also much influenced by the local schools of workmen, who acquired great skill by practice at home, though they were willing to receive fresh ideas from foreign countries. It was a development at home, with new ideas grafted upon it. Each great monastery and each cathedral chapter had its own gang or school of workmen rivalling each other, and eager to catch new ideas to surpass its rivals.

It happens fortunately that just at this principal turning-point in the history of architecture a most valuable record has been preserved to us, by an eye-witness, of the progress of the great work at Canterbury, year by year from the time of the fire to the completion of the work. William of Sens was appointed by the monks to restore the choir after the great fire in 1174, not because he was in advance of the English architects in style,

b This valuable work appeared in Paris, Vol. I. 1865, Vol. II. 1866. 4to.

but because he promised to preserve more of the old building than they did, and the monks wished to preserve as much as possible of the "Glorious Choir of Conrad." The researches of Professor Willis have enabled us to verify Gervase's description by the existing fabric, and to mark out with certainty the work of each year. The progressive change in the character of the work is very remarkable. At first it is almost pure Norman, though late; this is the work of the first year, 1175, and before its completion in 1184 it has gradually changed into almost pure Early English (71). In the beginning of the fourth year from the commencement of the work, that is, in 1179, the scaffolding gave way under the architect, William of Sens, who fell from the height of fifty feet; but, though much injured, he was not killed, and he continued for some months to direct the works from his bed, with the help of a young monk whom he had selected for the purpose, and who afterwards carried on the work on his own responsibility, with the help of such advice and instructions as he had received from the master. The successor was called 'William the Englishman.' The change of style became more rapid after this period, but there does not seem ground for supposing that it would have been otherwise, had William of Sens been able himself to complete the work he had so well begun. Much of the credit, however, must belong to his successor, who is described by Gervase as "William by name, English by nation, small in body, but in workmanship of many kinds acute and honest." As was frequently the case, the pupil was in advance of his master; but William of Sens was much restricted by the necessity of making his choir correspond with the old work preserved in the aisles, whereas his successor was freed from this restraint, the old work not extending to the eastern chapel, or corona; and in the transepts, which were out of sight from the choir, the newer style was more freely adopted.

There are many striking points of resemblance in the Cathedral of Sens to that of Canterbury; there is also a remarkable coincidence in the history of the two cathedrals, Sens having been damaged and the roof burnt by a great fire in 1184, the very year that Canterbury was finished. This involved the necessity of rebuilding the central vault and clerestory, which are at least half a century later than the aisles and arcades.

A considerable part of the cathedral of Lisieux, in Normandy,