the preference to the theory of the hydrurets. Indeed there are many other substances possessing a brilliancy which may be called metallic. The charcoal, for instance, which is deposed, when the products of vegetable substances are made to pass through an incandescent tube, possesses this brilliancy in a high degree. It possesses also opacity; moreover, charcoal is a conductor of electricity.

2. Their preparation by means of perfectly dry alkaline carbonates; and to this head belong several observations on the dry state of alkaline compounds.

It is certain, that in order to adopt the theory of the hydrurets, we must necessarily admit that the dry alkalies contain a certain quantity of water, as well as the muriatic gas; and that, on combining, they retain a proportion of this water, which the action of the acids, aided by heat, cannot separate from them. But, in the theory of the metals, it is not necessary to admit that potassium and sodium retain, under the same circumstances, a quantity of oxigen which reduces them to the second degree of oxidation? And these two quantities only differ as to the small proportion of hydrogen, which is supposed to be combined with potassium and sodium.

If, on the other hand, it is considered, that the pure alkalies exert a great action on water, so that it is impossible to deprive them of that which is incontestibly united with them, except by means of combination; that they absorb it from the air and become deliquescent, whilst they can only attract oxigen under some peculiar circumstances, and that then they retain it so feebly, that the bare contact of water is sufficient to detach from them all that portion which constitutes the last degree of oxidation; it will not appear improbable that they may retain some water when they combine with the acids, which themselves exert a powerful action on water.

3. The great analogy which subsists between alkalies and metallic oxids.

Ammonia, which our authors themselves consider as a compound of hydrogen and azote, weakens very much this analogy, if it does not totally destroy it. The chemical properties of oxid of arsenic and oxid of antimony differ considerably from those of potash. Several metallic oxids form, with the alkalies, compounds of considerable stability, which even crystalize regularly; and we know of no similar compounds among the alkalies, unless alumine and silex are confounded with them.

But, however this may be, we shall proceed to the discoveries of our authors, which form the fourth part of their work.

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This last part is devoted to an object which has no immediate relation to the preceding researches, but which is not, on that account, less interesting. It is a new analysis of vegetable and animal substances; or an investigation into their constitu ent principles.

It is necessary to recollect, that Lavoisier endeavoured to apply his important theory of combustion to the investigation of the nature of vegetable and animal substances, which he considered as oxids; the one having for their basis hydrogen and carbon, the others hydrogen, carbon and azote. He saw that, by burning these substances in a given quantity of hydrogen gas, it was possible to ascertain, from the water and carbonic acid obtained in the combustion, the constituent principles of the substance burnt. He proceeded on this plan to the analysis of several of them; and if it was not made with that exactness which has been attained since, at least it cannot be doubted that his method was susceptible of it.

Since that period this description of analysis has been too much neglected. That of ether and alcohol may, however, be mentioned, which has been made, with great precision, after a similar method.

But there are several substances to which it would be impossible to apply Lavoisier's method. Our authors have imagined one equally ingenious and general; and in their process also, the constituent principles of a substance are discovered by its combustion in oxigen gas, and by carefully ascertaining the quantity of oxigen consumed in the combustion, the quantity of carbonic acid and water formed, the gaseous substances which may be disengaged, and the fixed principles found in the solid residue.

All these results are obtained, by burning the substance to be examined, by means of the oxigenated muriate of potash, in an apparatus which gives vent to the gases which are disengaged through a tube plunged under mercury.

A mixture is made of a very exact weight of the substance, and of the suroxigenated perfectly dry muriate. It is introduced into the apparatus by means of a cock, provided with a cavity for receiving this mixture, which is then exposed to a sufficient degree of heat. The gas, which is evolved, is conducted under the mercury. This gas is measured, and the proportion of carbonic acid, which it contains, and of azote, which may have been evolved at the same time, ascertained. On the other hand, it is known what quantity of oxigen the suroxigenated muriate employed must have furnished. Thus, from all these observations the quantity of carbon, of oxigen

and of azote, which the substance under examination contained, is inferred, whilst the suroxigenated muriate gives a determined weight of muriate of potash. If, therefore, the substance contained any fixed principles, they are found with the muriate of potash and separated from it; or else a particular operation is performed, by means of which the fixed principles are ascertained.

We cannot describe in detail the apparatus and process of our authors. They give the description of them with much care, and neglect none of the circumstances which may have an influence on the exactness of each experiment.

They have already analyzed by this means fifteen vegetable substances; viz. the oxalic, tartareous, mucous, citric and acetic acids; resin of turpentine, copal, wax and olive-oil; sugar, gum, starch, milk sugar, beech and oak wood. Each analysis is exhibited in a table, showing the quantities of the substance employed, that of the products, and, finally, the calculation of the result.

Animal substances, submitted to the same process, caused a difficulty, arising from the azote, a constituent part of them. If oxigen happens to be in excess during the operation, nitrous gas is formed, of which it would be difficult to ascertain the quantity; on the other hand it is necessary to avoid the formation of ammonia. The device by which this inconvenience is avoided, consists in employing a proportion of suroxigenated muriate, such as that this salt be not in excess, and yet sufficient in quantity to transform all the animal substance completely into gas. This proportion is easily ascertained by preliminary trials. They made, in this manner, the analysis of dried fibrine, of albumen, of gelatine and of caseous matter.

A very remarkable result from all these analytical researches terminates this work, so rich in results of importance. In sugar, starch, gum and the woods, the proportion of hydrogen and oxigen is the same as that which constitutes water; whilst in animal substances an excess of hydrogen exists with azote, in very nearly the proportions which constitute am

monia.

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APPENDIX.

PENAL CODE

OF THE

FRENCH EMPIRE.

PRELIMINARY DISPOSITIONS.

ARTICLE 1.

THOSE infractions of the law to which such punishments are affixed as the police may inflict, are called contraventions.

Those which subject the party to correctional punishment, are styled offences or misdemeanors.

Those for which the law inflicts corporal or ignominious punishments are denominated crimes.

ART. 2. Every attempt to commit a crime, manifested by overt acts, and followed by a commencement of execution, if it have been suspended or have failed of its effect only from accidental circumstances, or such as were independent of the will of the perpetrator, is considered as the crime itself.

ART. 3. Attempts to commit offences are not considered as actual offences, except in cases in which it has been expressly so determined by law.

ART. 4. No contravention, offence or crime, shall entail punishments which were not provided by law for the same, before the commission thereof.

ART. 5. The provisions of the present code are not applicable to military contraventions, offences or crimes. ·

BOOK I.

Of punishments in criminal and correctional cases, and of their

effects.

ART. 6. Punishments for criminal acts are either corporal and ignominious, or ignominious only.

VOL. II.

ART. 7. The corporal and ignominious punishments, are:

1. Death;

2. Hard labour for life;

3. Transportation;

4. Hard labour for a limited time;

5. Imprisonment.

Branding and total confiscation may be inflicted, together with a corporal punishment, in cases determined by law.

ART. 8. The ignominious punishments are:

1. The pillory;

2. Banishment;

3. Deprivation of the rights of citizenship. ART. 9. Punishments in correctional cases are:

1. Confinement for a limited time in a house of correction; 2. Deprivation for a limited time of certain rights of citizenship, or of civil or family rights;

3. Fines.

ART. 10. A sentence of condemnation to the punishments established by law, does not operate as an exemption from such restitution and damages, as may be due to the injured party.

ART. 11. Placing the party under immediate inspection of the higher police, fines, and the special confiscation of the instrument of the crime or offence, when it is the property of the offender, or of the subject matter of such crime or offence, or things which have been, or were intended to be used in the commission thereof, are punishments which may be inflicted both in criminal and correctional cases.

CHAPTER I.

Of punishments in criminal cases.

ART. 12. All persons sentenced to death shall be beheaded. ART. 13. A person under sentence of death for the crime of parricide, shall be taken to the place of execution with no other garment than a shirt, barefooted, and with his head covered with a black veil.

He shall be exposed on the scaffold while an officer of the court reads his sentence to the spectators;-shall afterwards have his right hand cut off, and immediately suffer death.

ART. 14. The bodies of those so executed shall be delivered to their families if claimed, to be buried privately and without pomp. ART. 15. Males condemned to hard labour, shall be employed in the most laborious tasks; they shall have a cannon ball chained to their feet, or shall be chained together in pairs, when the nature of the labour in which they may be employed, will admit of it.

ART. 16. Women condemned to hard labour, shall undergo their punishment in workhouses.

ART. 17. The punishment of deportation shall consist in the transportation for life of the culprit, to a place selected by government, out of the continental territory of the empire.

If the person so deported again enter the territory of the empire,