LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-XI. DUE attention to the instructions that have been given in the preceding lessons in the art of Penmanship, and assiduous practice for about an hour a day, will have rendered any one, who is endeavouring to learn to write from our copy-slips, a tolerable proficient in making letters, composed of right or straight lines, or lines that are commenced, or finished, or commenced and finished, as in the case of the top-and-bottomturn, with a hook or turn.

A great number of copies, consisting of letters of this kind, have been supplied to give the learner a sufficient variety in the words or combinations of letters that he is copying, and to give him confidence in his power to make the four strokes which enter into the formation of by far the greater part of the letters of

a

present it will be sufficient to deal with those into whose formation it enters without any alteration or modification whatever. The letter O is purely a curved letter, for no portion of it consists of a perfectly straight stroke, as the other letters which have already been brought under the reader's notice. It may be commenced on the straight line c c, but it is better to begin and end the letter at the point a, a little above the line, as it is from this point that a fine hair-line is carried to the right, when it is necessary to connect the letter o with any letter that may follow it, as the learner will see in Copy-slip No. 40. Commencing, then, at the point &, the hair-line, of which the right side of the letter consists, is carried upwards to the line a a, and then turned to the left and brought downwards. By a gradual pressure on the pen the hair-line is now turned into a thick stroke, which attains its broadest part at the line c c, when the pressure

a

the writing alphabet, before he begins to make the remaining elementary strokes, which are of less frequent occurrence. The practice that he has now had, and the knowledge and amount of skill in writing that he has already acquired, will enable him to advance more rapidly, and we shall proceed as quickly as possible to the end of our elementary lessons in the formation of the small letters of the writing alphabet, as exhibited in large text, giving fewer copies than we have hitherto done, for the sake of affording practice in the formation of each particular letter in combination with others.

In Copy-slip No. 35 the learner's attention is directed to the letter O, which is a complete and perfect letter in itself, while, at the same time, it may be considered as a simple elementary form, since it enters into the composition of the letters a, d, and q. It also influences the formation of many other letters of the alphabet, as the learner will see hereafter; but for the

of the pen is relaxed, and the thick down-stroke is gradually narrowed again into a hair-line, which is turned upwards towards the right and joined to the hair-line with which the letter was commenced at the point x. The learner will notice that the upper part of the letter o, which lies above the line c c, is the only portion of the letter that is really new to him, for the lower part of the letter is very nearly the same as that portion of the bottom-turn or top-and-bottom-turn which is below the line c c.

In Copy-slip No. 36 the letter o and the bottom-turn are given. These strokes, in combination from the letter a, as in Copy-slip 37, the bottom-turn being appended to the letter o in such a manner that the point where the hair-line forming the right side of the letter cuts the line c c lies in a line passing along the centre of the thick down-stroke of the bottom-turn. The letters d and q are formed by adding modifications of the bottom-turn to the letter o, as shown in Copy-slips 38 and 39.

SECTION XX.-THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 1. The four classes, or conjugations, into which the French verbs are divided, are distinguished by the endings of the present, of the infinitive [§ 44]. The first conjugation ends in er, as chanter, to sing; donner, to give; parler, to speak; chercher, to seek.

The second conjugation ends in ir, as chérir, to cherish; punir, to punish; munir, to provide with; finir, to finish.

The termination of the infinitive of the regular verbs of the third conjugation is evoir, as, devoir, to owe; recevoir, to receive; that of the irregular verb is oir, as, valoir, to be worth.

The fourth conjugation ends in re, as rendre, to render; fendre, to split; tendre, to stretch; vendre, to sell.

2. A verb preceded by another verb (other than the auxiliaries avoir and être), or by a preposition (other than en), is put in the present of the infinitive:

1. Votre belle-mère a-t-elle quelque chose à faire? 2. Elle n'a rien à faire. 3. A-t-elle deux pages à écrire ? 4. Non, Monsieur, elle n'en a qu'une. 5. Avez-vous l'intention de lire 7. ce journal ? 6. Oui, Madame, j'ai l'intention de le lire. Avez-vous raison d'acheter un habit de velours? 8. J'ai raison d'en acheter un. 9. Votre petite fille a-t-elle besoin de dormir? 10. Oui, Monsieur, elle a besoin de dormir, elle est fatiguée. 11. Avez-vous peur de tomber? 12. Je n'ai pas peur de tomber. 13. Le jardinier a-t-il le temps de travailler dans les champs ? 14. Il n'a pas envie de travailler dans les champs. 15. Vos champs sont-ils aussi grands que les miens? 16. Ils sont plus 18. grands que les vôtres. 17. Avez-vous honte de marcher ? Je n'ai pas honte de marcher, mais j'ai honte de danser. 19. Quel âge a votre fils? 20. Il a seize ans. 21. Avons-nous le deux Mars ou le cinq Juin ? 22. Nous avons le vingt-huit Juillet. 23. Est-il midi? 24. Non, Monsieur, il n'est pas encore midi, il n'est que onze heures et demie. 25. Il est encore de bonne heure.

EXERCISE 36.

1. What has your brother-in-law to do? 2. He has letters to write. 3. Does he want to work? 4. Yes, Sir, he wants to work. 5. Does he intend to read my book? 6. He does not intend to read your book, he has no time. 7. Is your sister ashamed to walk? 8. My sister is not ashamed to walk, but my brother is ashamed to dance. 9. Has your cousin anything to say? 10. My cousin has nothing to say, she is afraid to speak. 11. Is it late? 12. No, Madam, it is not late, it is early. 13. Have you a wish to read my sister's letter (f.) ? 14. Have you the courage to go to the war? 15. I have not the dress (f.)? 17. Yes, Sir, she is right to buy one. 16. Is your sister right to buy a silk courage to go to the war. 18. Does that Ichild want to sleep? 19. No, Sir, that child does not want to sleep, he is not tired. 20. Has your brother's gardener a wish to work in my garden? 21. He has a wish to work in (dans) old. 24. What is the day of the month? 25. It is the ninth of March. 26. Are you afraid to walk? 27. I am not afraid to walk, but I am tired. 28. Have you time to read my brother's book? 29. I have time to read his book. 30. Has the joiner a wish to speak? 31. He has a wish to work and to read. 32. Is your son afraid of falling? 33. He is not afraid of falling, but he is afraid of working. 34. What o'clock is it? 35. It

4. The following idioms are followed by the preposition de when they come before a verb [§ 132] :

Avoir besoin, to want.

Avoir coutume, to be accustomed.

Avoir dessein, to intend, to design. Avoir envie, to have a wish, a desire.

Avoir honte, to be ashamed.

leisure.

Avoir peur, to be afraid. Avoir raison, to be right. Avoir regret, to regret.

Avoir intention, or l'intention, to Avoir tort, to be wrong.

intend.

Avoir le courage, to have courage.

Avoir sujet, to have reason. Avoir soin, to take care.

OUR HOLIDAY.

GYMNASTICS.-IV.

THE HORIZONTAL BAR.

after the above idioms:

Cet enfant a besoin de dormir,
Vous avez honte de courir,

RÉSUMÉ OF
Avez-vous quelque chose à dire ?
Je n'ai rien à dire.
Votre sœur n'a-t-elle rien à écrire?
Elle a deux lettres à écrire.
A-t-elle le temps de les écrire ?
Elle n'a pas dessein de les écrire.
Elle n'a pas l'intention de les écrire.
Elle n'a pas envie de les écrire.
Avez-vous peur de danser?
Je n'ai pas honte de danser.
Votre cousin a raison de sortir.
N'avez-vous pas soin d'écrire ?

That child wants to sleep.
You are ashamed of running.
EXAMPLES.

Have you anything to say?
I have nothing to say.
Has your sister nothing to write?
She has two letters to write.
Has she time to write them?
She does not design to write them.
She does not intend to write them.
She has no desire to write them.
Are you afraid to dance?

I am not ashamed to dance.
Your cousin is right to go out.
Do you not take care to write?

also one of the most simple in its character, consisting of two stout upright posts, firmly embedded in the ground, and crossed by a movable round bar, about two inches in diameter. The posts should be about seven feet high, and drilled with holes commencing at a distance of three feet from the ground, and continuing to the top. These holes are for the ready insertion of the bar at any desired height from the ground. For security in its position, each end of the bar should be provided with a cap, screwed on or otherwise fixed after it is placed in the uprights.

1. The exercises upon the bar are commenced from the position shown in our illustration (Fig. 13). From this position a variety of simple movements may be practised, all tending to assist the development of the muscular powers. Thus, the body may first be gently swung to and fro; then the hands may be used in travelling from end to end of the bar; and next the

guerre ?

war?

level of the head.

Free movements of the legs are also de

sirable-kicking forwards, backwards, or in a straddling position; raising the knees and then extending the legs downward, and so on. The position of the hands may be changed, the bar being held with the grasp reversed, or the arms crossed while the same movements are practised. And the learner should include the hanging by either hand alternately among these elementary exercises, to which it is necessary to be perfectly accustomed before attempting the higher rack movements.

The position taken by the body in Fig. 13 is called hanging sideways. To hang crossways the gymnast must, in starting, turn his back to one of the supports, and grasp the bar either hand over hand, or one hand before the other, while he has the length of the bar in front of him. This distinction between sideways and crossways it will be necessary to bear in mind. While hanging crossways, practise such of the movements previously mentioned as are suited to the altered position.

2. When familiar with the preliminary exercises, the learner will proceed to the more difficult, commencing with the rising and sinking movement, and practising it until he is sufficiently expert to be able to bring the body above the bar, and to rest upon the hands while the bar is level with the thighs. This is called rising into the rest, or resting position. A jerk and a spring of the legs will at first be required in the progress upward, and it will be facilitated by pausing in an intermediate position, known as the drop rest. This is reached when the bar is level with the pit of the stomach, the arms being bent upward, ready for the completion of the rise. the rest may be attained by the help of a swinging movement, first backwards and forwards two or three times, and then taking advantage of the next backward motion to spring upwards towards the resting position. The rise may also be practised with the bar behind the gymnast, but this is a more difficult feat.

Or

3. Circling the bar should be performed with the bar at the height of the chest or shoulders. It consists, as will probably be understood from the name, in turning a summersault completely over the bar, and is not difficult when the swinging and rising movements have been well practised. Grasping the bar firmly, the gymnast starts from the ground with a spring, throws the legs upwards, and, bending the arms, turns over by the impetus which the spring and the throw give to the body. He may next turn from the swinging position, without touching the ground, and should practise both the forward and the backward circle.

and the knee between the hands. This is a convenient position for a variety of movements-swinging, twirling, etc.

7. From the position just described release the left hand, holding firmly on with right arm and leg, and pass the left leg over; then bring up the left hand. The position will then be sideways, both hands and both legs over the bar, and the knees between the hands. From this you may easily rise to the sitting position on the bar, sinking again and again, until you have practised the movement sufficiently.

8. From the sitting posture, perform twirls both backward and forward; for the backward twirl grasping the bar in the ordinary manner, with the knuckles forward; and for the for ward twirl, holding it with the grasp reversed.

9. When both legs are over the bar, as described in No. 7, release the hold of the hands, first one and then the other, and hang by the hocks, with the head downwards. Recover from this position by a swing to and fro, to give an

impetus, grasping the bar as the body rises. This exercise should only be at tempted by the learner who has attained some degree of proficiency in the foregoing movements, and has become familiar with this form of "practice at the bar" generally.

10. The lever exercises upon the bar are accomplished in the following manner:Grasping the bar firmly, with the hands in the position known as the drop-rest, and throwing all the weight upon the arms, gradually raise the body until it extends in an horizontal position above the bar. You may then move the body from side to side, as upon a pivot, but being careful to keep the legs close together and fully extended.

11. After the learner can perform the last exercise, resting upon both arms, he may attempt it with one arm only, the other being stretched forward on the same level as the rest of the body. These exercises will try the wrists, but may be safely attempted by the learner who has gone through the preliminary movements.

12. It is an easy matter to descend from the positions last described to that known as lying upon the bar. In this the stomach alone must rest upon the bar, the body being properly balanced and fully extended, somewhat as if in the act of swimming. But lying with the back upon the bar is much more difficult, and it is well not to attempt this feat unless, as in a properly-conducted gymnasium, some one or two persons are by to prevent your falling in case of failure. But, with caution, there is very little hazard of injury, and in practising movements of this kind for the first time it is well to have the bar fixed at a moderate height only from the ground.

4. The circling movement is defined by the dotted line in our next illustration (Fig. 14), which also shows one method of practising the next series of exercises, namely, hanging by the arms. The gymnast may hang either by the armpits, as in the cut, or by the elbow joints; but in the latter case he will lack the necessary purchase for the performance of such feats as the circle. He should, however, practise each method, in order to strengthen all the muscles of the arm alike.

5. At present, in holding the bar we have exercised the arms exclusively. But the legs also may be employed for this purpose. Commence by hanging crossways with the hands, then swing one leg over the bar, so that it is held firmly in the hock. If it is intended to place the right leg over the bar, the right hand should be held foremost, and vice versa. After one leg has been hooked on, the hands may be brought nearer together, and the other leg placed over the bar. Travel, then, along the bar from end to end.

6. Hang crossways with the right hand in front, and bring over the right leg; then advance the left hand nearer to the right, and remove the right hand to the other side of the leg. The position is then sideways to the bar, with one leg over it,

Very expert gymnasts-more expert than our readers are likely to desire to be, or, perhaps, than it is advisable they should become are able, from the last-named positions, to twirl a summersault, alighting easily upon the feet. But no useful end can be served by the practice of hazardous experiments of this kind, and therefore we wish to be understood as in no way recommending them to our readers, although we include them in the list of feats, the accomplishment of which may occasionally be witnessed.

We have now described the principal varieties of the exercises on the horizontal bar; but, to the learner who is partial to practice with this contrivance and it is a general favourite many other movements will suggest themselves. Those which are simple in character are frequently the best, for, in increasing the difficulty of performance, there is not necessarily a propor tionate advantage in physical development and the accession of bodily strength.

We come next to the Parallel Bars, reserving these exercises for another paper.

HISTORIC SKETCHES.-VI.

WILLIAM SAUTRÉ, HERETIC.

NEARLY five hundred years have elapsed since the subject of the following sketch presented itself, but the interest which it excited, and the principles which it brought into notice, can never die. We are all interested very deeply in the matter of freedom of conscience, freedom to worship God in the way suggested by the light He has given us; and we can never afford to lose sight of the principle then vindicated, even to the death, that it is not competent to a ruler to visit with the punishment of a crime, a man whose sole offence consists in differing from his brethren on points of spiritual belief. The first occasion on

were made to silence him, but he spoke on and spoke out, and, strong in the protection of John of Gaunt, the Duke of Lancaster, brother to the Black Prince, and uncle to King Richard II., managed to weather the several storms which his opinions brought upon him. He was arraigned more than once before spiritual tribunals, and many of his opinions were de clared to be erroneous, and many more were condemned as heretical, by an assembly of Church magnates. Ecclesiastical censures, however, were the only weapons with which the spiritual courts could enforce their decrees, and Wycliffe was suffered to die a natural death at his rectory of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, whither he retired after a life of unceasing toil and labour in aid of what he deemed to be the truth.

which this principle was vindicated in England was in 1401, and the man who was the first martyr to the cause of free conscience in England was William Sautré, a harmless, inoffensive man, the rector or curate of St. Osith's Church, London. William Sautré was one of a numerous body who had been stirred to the very bottom of their hearts by the teaching of John Wycliffe, or Wickliffe, and his followers. Wycliffe had taught with as much boldness as ability-his enemies said with more that certain doctrines inculcated by the clergy of the day were erroneous, and contrary to the teachings of our Lord and his apostles; he taught that the Bible was the only standard by which men might measure the truth or falsity of their creeds; and he denounced in emphatic and somewhat rough language, the vices and corruptions which had infected the clergy, especially the clergy in monasteries. Upon these topics Wycliffe preached with considerable effect at Oxford, where he was a professor, and in many other places. Attempts

VOL. I.

After the death of Wycliffe, the spirit which had animated him passed into the breasts of his disciples, "the poor preachers," who went about with the English Bible (a new and forbidden article) in their hands, and preached so convincingly and cheeringly that, as was seen in the ministry of our Lord, "the common people heard them gladly." The attention of the Church authorities was soon drawn to them, and letters called bulls (on account of the bullæ, or lead seals, which were attached to them) were sent from the Court of Rome, addressed to the Archbishop of Canterbury and the English bishops, to the University of Oxford, and to the king, commanding them each and all to help in suppressing the heretics, and in uprooting the tares (the Latin word for tare is lolium, from which the nickname "Lollard" was afterwards derived and affixed to the reformers), which, while men slept, the enemy had sown in the garden of the Lord.

Edward III., who died in 1377, was not the king to busy 12