little impediments to progress, he will require very considerable practice before he thinks of attempting the next step in shading, which differs from that already explained in the manner of drawing the line. It will be noticed that in Fig. 82 the learner placed the pencil upon the paper before he began to draw each line, nor was it taken off until the line was finished; in fact, it was very much like drawing a number of downward strokes like the "straight stroke" in Copy-slip No. 25, in our Lessons in Penmanship (page 117). The kind of line we are now considering is one that must have no perceptible beginning or ending, where the pencil either commences the movement for drawing the line before it touches the paper, as a (Fig. 83) or as b, where, at the termination, the pencil is gradually raised from the paper; or as c, where the manner of a and b is combined; that is, where the line com mences imperceptibly and ends imperceptibly, first, by lowering the pencil in an inclined direction to the paper at the commence ment, and by raising it gradually at the end before leaving off so that the strength of the line when completed is in the middle Curved lines drawn in the same way must also be repeatedly practised. The straight lines (Fig. 82) are for flat tints, back grounds, etc.; the curved lines are employed for rounded forms After the pupil has mastered the manner of drawing these various kinds of line, he may then proceed to cross them, as i Fig. 84, observing again that he must not as yet cross them at right angles. Perhaps he may ask, why not as yet? is there any decided objection to lines crossed at right angles? Certainly not, when done by an experienced hand; but the reason why we object to his crossing them in that way at present is because he will have first to acquire the power of making all his lines equal in tone, thickness, and strength, and at regular intervening distances; and this we know will demand all the thought and care he can bestow for a while before he must attempt to cross them in any direction. The reason for commencing the line (as shown at b, Fig. 83) firmly, and then gradually lifting up the pencil when drawing lines for an even tint of shade of some extent is, that we may continue the line by the manner of c, so that the extremities of these lines as they lap over one another may form an even line without any perceptible joint. Very probably it may be neces sary to repeat the example c many times successively (but this depends upon the extent of the shadow), and then we finally end with the example a. Let the pupil draw a square of about four or five inches' side, and fill it up by this method of making an even shade tint. If he were to work the whole space with continued portions similar to Fig. 82, the joints of these portions would show, and spoil the tint; the edge, b c (Fig. 82), would be shown across the shadow as many times as the portion was repeated. Believing the pupil now to be master of the method of drawing a single line under any one of the conditions above named, whether straight or curved, we will proceed to apply them, or rather to combine them so as to form tints required in shading. Of course we can do little for the pupil towards helping him in his judgment regarding the tones of shadows; his own observation must be his guide in deciding how dark or how light a shadow is. Shadows and tones must be compared with one another, because the circumstances surrounding them will so far influence their intensity that it would be impossible to give rules for shadows under all conditions. They are so varied and so changeable that we can do no more than give him a few general principles to guide his practice. We have said before that cast shadows are, for certain reasons already given, generally darker than broad shadows; we will add now that the highest light and darkest shadow are together; and as the strength of the light upon an object or collection of objects gradually diminishes, so the depth or intensity of the shadows diminishes also. Take an example:--Place a chair near to a window, and another chair in the part of the room farthest from the window; the light which falls upon the chair near to the window will be much stronger than that which falls upon the farther chair. Observe the broad shadows and the cast shadows from the legs upon the ground, the latter especially, of the first chair. Compare them with the corresponding shadows of the second chair, or that farthest from the window. We venture to say, without more comment, that the pupil will have seen enough from this experiment to satisfy him upon this point. This principle of the darkest shadow being near to the highest light is found to be the same respecting the shadow on a ball (Fig. 85), or on the side of a column (Fig. 86), and in thousands of cases besides, so numerous that we need not look far for examples. The great difficulty in shading is the management of the half tints. Any one can make an extreme shade of black; and if the right feeling for half tints and semi-tones is not a natural one-something analogous to that of a good ear for music-it can be to a great extent acquired, though in some cases it will demand a much greater amount of practical experience and observation than in others before they begin to perceive the many va rieties of tone which are spread upon the surface of an object, especially if it be an irregular one. But when we have to add colour in connection with light and shade, we go farther into a field of change and variety that is unbounded. And here is the test of the painter. It is the management of the minor tones which makes all the difference between a first-rate artist and a common country sign-painter. The latter may paint a red cow sufficiently well to answer the purpose of giving a title to the village alehouse. We will grant that he has the ability to make a tolerable representation of the animal in outline, but when he attempts to paint it he will do nothing more than fill up the outline with red, and darken the parts in shade with black, because he can see nothing further; but the eye of the true artist would seize upon the innumerable tints spread all over the surface--the various degrees of colour influenced by the position and strength of the light, some parts more brilliant, some more subdued, intermingled with greys of various hues in every portion-added to which are the reflections of colour and of light amongst the shadows, some warm, some cold: in short, to name all the changes and tones that would require his especial attention can only be done by him who is able to paint them. Here, then, is the secret why one painter is greater than another; and their comparative excellence is determined by their ability to perceive and represent few or many of the infinite varieties of tones scattered over every object in Nature. It will be readily seen, on referring to Figs. 85, 86, and 87,where curved lines in working the shadows are used in preference to straight ones, and, on the contrary, where straight are preferred to curved; curved lines must be used to represent curved surfaces, either convex or concave. The ball (Fig. 85), is altogether shaded by curved lines, which render such important service in giving effect to rounded forms. Straight lines are the principal composing lines of the shadow on the cylinder (Fig. 86). On account of its uniformity of surface and because it is perpendicular, perpendicular lines are employed; whilst the apparent rotundity of the cylinder is made to depend upon the tone of the shadow rather than upon the lines which compose it; the shadow having its reflection, its deep shade, and its half tint, the last blending into the highest light. As to the proper strength of tone to be given to these portions of the shadow, the pupil must be guided by his own judgment, which the more it is exercised the keener will be his perception of the tone of a shadow or reflection by comparing it with other shadows and reflections, for by comparison only we can undertake to say how dark or how light a tint must be. Fig. 87 is drawn from a cast of a geranium leaf, where a mixture of lines is employed, some more curvilineal than others, according to the rotundity of the surface to be copied; for it must be observed that in proportion as a rounded surface ap proaches the flat, so will it require straighter lines to represent it. In a former lesson we mentioned the stump, an instrument used for laying on a tint by rubbing; this may be used for the first instalment of a shadow, that is, for rubbing in a flat tint over the broader and more decided parts of the shadow, the whole being afterwards passed over by the line method. In using the stamp, the tint must not be made as dark as the shadow ought to be when finished, nor must it be carried into the half tones uniting the shade with the high light. An effect can be much more readily produced with the stump, but the danger is lest the shadows should be made dirty or cloudy. After a little experience this method will be found to be quicker than doing it altogether by lines, inasmuch as it saves a little labour; but the shadows must be passed over with lines after the stump has laid the foundation, otherwise all the crispness, clearness of tone, and definite precision of character will be sacrificed. We strongly advise the pupil to provide himself with a few plaster casts of leaves, fruit, and ornament. The advantages of casts are many. They can be placed in any light, and they present so many different views that they may be said to be inexhaustible copies. DERIVATIONS: PREFIXES (continued). PAUSING for a moment in the details of our subject, I would ask you whether you know what words are. Take the word father. What is it? Father, as it stands here on the page, is a combination of straight and curved lines. What does the combination of lines represent? A combination of sounds.. What does the combination of sounds represent? A state of mind; a mental conception. What does the mental conception represent? An external object; an external object that has the quality of being a father, or that bears the relation which we designate by the term father. So then the whole connection between an external object and the written or printed name of this book may be set forth thus:-Lines make letters; letters make syllables; syllables make words; words represent sounds; sounds represent ideas; ideas represent outward objects-that is, persons or things. Consequently, objects are the basis of language; ideas are its essence; sounds are its medium, and lines are its forms. These outward objects, and internal realities, are set forth by signs,-signs made by the mouth-signs made by the hand. The lips, then, and the fingers are the interpreters of the person. What progress in civilisation is implied in this connection of the pen with the mind and with the universe; the pan describing, and the press diffusing, so as to be univers sally understood, the most subtle of all essences; states of thought and feeling; and the widest, as well as the wisest of all generalisations which we term the laws of God, or God's own operations in the government of the universe! The study of language, thus viewed, is the study of the mind of man, as well as the study of the works and the will of God. Deep and mys terious study, worthy of our best powers, and sure to be attended by an ample reward! And if the study of language is the study of the human mind, and the Divine mind in their activity and their utterances, then no one who has not made some proficiency in the study is, or can be, competent to interpret or expound man's will or God's will, profane or sacred literature. To resume our subject: Olig, of Greek origin (oλyos, pronounced ol'-i-gos, a few), is the first part of oligarchy (Greek, apyn, pronounced ar'-ke, government), government by a few; oligarch, one of a small number of rulers. Omni, of Latin origin (omnis, all), is seen in omniscient (Latin, scio, I know), all-knowing; omnipotent (Latin, potens, powerful), all-powerful; omnipresent, existing everywhere; omnivorous, alldevouring. Ortho, of Greek origin (Greek, oplos, pronounced or'-thos, straight, right), as in orthodoxy, right opinion; orthogonal, rightangled; orthopedic, right-footed, etc. "Athanasius is commonly accounted the very rule of orthodoxality in this point."-Cudworth, "Intellectual System." This prefix forms part also of orthography (Greek, ypaøn, pronounced graf'-fe, writing), right writing, that is, in the spelling of words; as orthoepy (Greek, eros, pronounced ep-os, a word) is right pronunciation. Over, of Saxon origin, as in overarch, overbalance, overbear, overcharge, overboard, over-boil, over-bounteous, frequently denoting too much, as over-careful, that is, careful to excess. Overcome has two significations, to conquer, and to come over or upon "He found the means to subdue both the one and the other, compelling as well the overcomers as the overcome to be his tributaries."-Brende, "Quintus Curtius." And overcome us like a summer's cloud, Over when employed for above, as "over two hundred," is to be "And had he not in his extremest need Been helped through the swiftness of his steed, In the passive the verb overtake seems to denote the being sud- "Brethren, if a man be overtaken in a fault.”—Gal. vi. 1. It is not difficult to see how to overtake may mean to get over, overcome, surprise, but how it means to come up with is less easy to conceive. The notion of over, or of superiority may, however, lie in the act by which you succeed in coming up to the person you wish to overtake; thus, by walking more quickly than he, you overtake your friend, you take a step over his, and get beyond him. Out, of Saxon origin, beyond a certain limit, is a very common prefix, as in outbid, outdo, outface, outlaw, outlive, outstrip, etc. Outrage has nothing to do with out. Outrage comes from the medieval Latin word ultragium, through the French oultraige, outrage. Ultragium, from ultra, beyond, denoted a surplusage paid to the lord by his subject on failure of paying his dues in proper time, whence outrage came to signify something in excess and to have an offensive meaning. Pan, of Greek origin (was, pas, m.; Taσa, pa'-sa f.; wav, pan, n., all), is found in panacea (Greek, аkeоμaι, pronounced a-ke'-o-mi, I heal), all-heal, a universal remedy; in pancreas (Greek, peas, pronounced kre'-as, flesh), all flesh-that is, the sweetbread; and in pandects (Greek, dexoμai, pronounced dek'-o-mi, I receive), a common title of the Greek miscellanies. The term is known in history in its application to a digest of the civil law published by the Emperor Justinian. Again, pan occurs in pantheism (Greek, deos, pronounced the'-os, God), all-goodness—that is, the system which regards God and the universe as the same. Pan forms the first part of pantomime (Greek μuos, pronounced mi-mos, a mimic; and the word mimic is from mimos), allmimicry, because the performance consisted solely of imitation. "The pantomimes who maintained their reputation from the age of Augustus to the sixth century, expressed, without the use of words, the various fables of the gods and heroes of antiquity; and the perfection of their art, which sometimes disarmed the gravity of the philosopher, always excited the applause and wonder of the people."Gibbon, "Roman Empire." Para, of Greek origin (napa, pronounced par-ra, by the side of, as in parallels, i.e., parallel lines), has in English various acceptations. In parable (Greek, Baλw, pronounced bal'-lo, I throw), something put by the side of another thing, a comparison, a similitude. In Scripture, the parables of the Old Testament are short, pithy, and weighty sayings; the parables of the New Testament are short tales, setting forth religious truth under similitudes; the former are apothegms; the latter allegories. 2. Para appears in paraclete (Greek, kaλe, pronounced kal'-ine, to call), the Advocate or Comforter (John xiv. 16). Paradise is a Persian word, denoting a park, and has no connection with the Greek para; in Hebrew, pardes, a garden. Par, of Latin origin (pars, partis, a part), appears in participate (Latin, capio, I take)—that is, to partake. This word partake is a hybrid, being formed of an English and a Latin word; it is therefore a cross in the breed between Latin and English. Pent, or penta, of Greek origin (TEVTE, pronounced pen'-te, five), the name given to what are called "the five books of Moses' as in pentagon, a figure having five sides; pentateuch (fivefold), namely, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. It is found in perambulate (Latin, ambulo, I walk), to walk Per, of Latin origin, through, by; as, peradventure, by chance. through, over. "The ancients used to crown virgins with the flowers of this plant (milkwort) when they perambulated the fields, to implore fertility thereto."-Miller, “Gardener's Dictionary." The per passes into pol in pollute (Latin, polluo, per, and lutum, mud). Pol is found also in pollicitation, a promising, from the Latin polliceor, I promise. Peri, of Greek origin (wept, pronounced per-re), meaning around; as, periphery (Greek, pepo, fer'-ro, I bear), a circumference; also in periphrasis (Greek, ppaois, fra'-sis, a phrase, a speech), a circumlocution, or roundabout mode of utterance; as, the loss of life, for death. Phil and philo, of Greek origin (pλos, fil'-los, a lover), as in philologer, a lover of science (particularly the science of language); philosopher (Greek, σopia, sof'-i-a, wisdom), a lover of wisdom; philomel (Greek, μexos, mel'-los, a song), applied to the nightingale; philanthropy (Greek, av@pwwos, an-thro'-pos, a man), the love of mankind. Phys, of Greek origin (Greek, puois, fa'-sis, nature), physic, and physician, originally meant natural philosophy and a natural philosopher; but derivatively, the words came to refer to a knowledge of such natural objects as were held to conduce to the art of healing. Physics, plural, still means Natural Philosophy; and the French word physicien means a Natural Philosopher, or one acquainted with the laws of nature. Physiognomy consists of the Greek words quais, fu'-sis, nature, and yyywσxw, gi-no'-sko, I know; and so properly denotes a knowledge of nature by outward appearances; but, as employed, the word signifies a knowledge of a man's character, as gained from his countenance. Physiology is the science of nature, but in a particular way; a science, that is, of the structure and laws of the human frame in particular, and of animal organisation in general. "I find that the most eminent and original physiologist of the present age (M. Cuvier) has been led, by his enlightened researches concerning the laws of the animal economy, into a train of thinking strikingly similar."-Dugald Stewart, " Philosophy of the Mind." Pleni, of Latin origin (plenus, full; hence plenty), is found in plenipotentiary (Latin, potens, powerful), one who has been entrusted with full power or authority. "Let the plenipotentiary sophisters of England settle with the diplomatic sophisters of France in what manner right is to be corrected by an infusion of wrong, and how truth may be rendered more true by a due intermixture of falsehood."-Burke. The Greek word wλeos (ple'-os) is the same as the Latin plenas, found in our "plenty." This word supplies the first syllable in pleonasm, a fulness of expression so as to become excessive. "It is a pleonasm, a figure used in Scripture, by a multiplicity of expressions, to signify some one notable thing."-South. Poly, of Greek origin (woλus, pol-use, many, much), appears in polyanthus (Greek, aveos, an'-thos, a flower), so called from its many flowers; and in polygamy (Greek, yauos [gam'-os], marriage), having many wives. "Polygamy was not commonly tolerated in Greece, for marriage was thought to be a conjunction of one man with one woman."-Potter, "Antiquities of Greece." Poly is also the first syllable of polyglot (Greek, yλWTTα, gloat'-ta, a tongue), one who knows many languages; also a book written in many languages, as the "Polyglot Bible." Post, of Latin origin, after, afterwards, appears in postdate, to date after the time of writing, at some later time; in postpone (Latin, pono, I place), to put off; and in postscript (Latin, scriptum, a writing), something added to a letter. We Postumous, erroneously spelt posthumous, from the Latin postumus, the same as postremus (from post, after), signifies late, very late, the latest, the last. This word is applied to a child born after the father's death, or a book published after the author's death. Sometimes the word is spelt posthume, for postume. have here an instance of the effect on spelling of a supposed etymology. Postume was thought to be composed of post, after, and humus, the ground, and hence the word was written posthume. It is, however, the superlative of the Latin posterus, and is used in the Latin language with the same applications as in English. Richardson is wrong in the etymology which he gives of this word. explorer was not successful in penetrating as far into the interior as he intended, and another journey will be necessary to ascertain from what sources sustenance is derived by the herds of deer that come from the interior of the country to the coasts at certain periods, and after a short stay return once more to their yet undiscovered haunts. In Alaska Mr. Frederick Whymper, an artist attached to the late Russo-American Telegraph Expedition, has been more successful, having advanced more than 1,200 miles into the heart of the country along the course of the Kwichpac or Youcon River, a magnificent stream that discharges its waters into the ocean nearly opposite the Isle of St. Lawrence, that lies like a breakwater across the entrance to Behring Strait, between the opposing coasts of Asia Pre, of Latin origin, before, as in precaution (from Latin, and America. cavere, to beware), forethought. LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.—XI. IN our last lesson it was stated that it is generally believed by geographers in the present day that the southern pole of the axis on which the earth revolves once in the course of every twenty-four hours, is situated in the midst of a vast continent to which access is forbidden by the masses of ice that fringe its coasts, and the steep rampart of volcanic mountains that rises abruptly from the very edge of its shore. The northern pole of the earth's axis, on the contrary, is supposed to be in the midst of an open ocean, navigable by vessels, if a ready and practicable means of entrance to its waters could be found through the ice-fields that encircle it. Possibly we are on the eve of solving the problem, and discovering with certainty what may be the condition of the regions that lie around the North Pole, for an expedition thither is preparing under the auspices of the French Government, which will in all probability set out for its destination in 1869, under the command of its originator, M. Gustave Lambert. It is M. Lambert's intention to avoid the routes taken by former explorers, and to push his way to the north through Behring Strait. To tell the story of Arctic explorations since Sir John Franklin left England on his third expedition of discovery to the north in 1844, to die three years after on the dreary wastes of King William Land, hard by Point Victory-an apt name for the last resting-place of a man to whom belongs the merit and honour of having discovered the "north-west passage' from England to the shores of Asia by sea-" barren honour" as it is and must be to all save himself and his companions, as its discovery can never be attended with results useful to commercewould occupy too much space. It will, therefore, suffice to say that of late years the most active and successful explorers of the regions that lie north of the line of waters that stretch from Baffin Bay on the east to Banks Strait on the west, are Dr. Elisha Kent Kane and Dr. Isaac J. Hayes. Both of these travellers are Americans, and both have received a gold medal from the Royal Geographical Society as an acknowledgment of the eminent services rendered to geography by their discoveries -the former having received the Founder's Gold Medal in 1856, for his services in connection with the American expeditions sent out in search of Franklin in 1850 and 1853, and the latter the Patron's Gold Medal in 1867, for his memorable expedition in 1860-61, towards the supposed open polar sea, in which he attained lat. 81° 35' in Smith Sound, a more northern point of land than has been reached by any previous navigator. Coming southward from Smith Sound, up which Dr. Hayes penetrated to within 9° 25', or somewhat less than 600 miles of the North Pole, we have Greenland or Danish America on our right, which was visited by Mr. Edward Whymper, a wellknown Alpine explorer, in 1867. Owing to an epidemic, which had carried off about ten per cent. of the population, this Mr. Frederick Whymper's journey into the interior of Alaska was made in 1866-7. He travelled by sledge from Norton Sound, a deep inlet to the south-east of Behring Strait, to the banks of the Youkon River, spending the winter months at Nulato, the last of the trading ports that the Russians have established along the course of the river and the interior of the country. In the spring he re-commenced his journey, and made his way up the stream in a boat, consisting of a framework covered with skins, to a point about 600 miles distant from Nulato, where the Porcupine River enters the Youkon. He then turned, and descended the course of the river to the sea. The Youkon is navigable for 1,800 miles from its embouchure during the summer months, but for at least eight months of the year it is frozen over. The natives on the coast are Esquimaux, while in the interior, and on the banks of the river, parties of Indians are occasionally met with. Public attention has recently been directed to Alaska, formerly Russian America, on account of its sale by the Russian government to the United States in 1867, for the sum of 7,000,000 dollars, or about £1,400,000. Some hundreds of miles lower down the west continent of North America, a little to the north of the boundary line between the British dominions and the United States, lies a broad belt of forest land and fertile pasture ground, watered by the head-streams of the Saskatchewan and the Red River, which stretches from the western confines of the new dominion of Canada to the Rocky Mountains. This region was visited by Viscount Milton and Dr. Cheadle in 1861-63; the expedition being "undertaken with the design of discovering the most direct route through British territory to the gold regions of Cariboo (in British Columbia), and exploring the unknown country on the western flank of the Rocky Mountains, in the neighbourhood of the sources of the north branch of the Thompson River." This expedition has furnished us with much valuable information about a country that has hitherto been entirely abandoned to Indians and trappers, but which contains upwards of 65,000 square miles of land, of unsurpassed fertility, abounding in mineral wealth, and which is destined to become, at no very distant period perhaps, one of the principal centres of British colonisation, affording the true north-west passage by land from Europe, through our colonies of Canada and British Columbia, to the splendid harbours of Esquimault and the great coal-fields of Vancouver Island, which offer every advantage for the protection and supply of a merchant fleet trading thence to India, China, and Japan. Our illustration* will give the reader some idea of the beauty and grandeur of the scenery on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. It is a view of the valley near Jasper House, or Fort Assiniboine, a little trading station on the bank of the Athabasca or Elk River, which emerges from the heart of the Rocky Mountains through a narrow gorge near this point, and expands into a lake about three or four miles long, the shores of which are beautifully wooded with clumps and clusters of dark-green pines, and covered with luxuriant verdure. In the background, on the right of the picture, is an ice-capped conical mountain called the Priest's Rook, which forms a prominent feature in the landscape, while on the left is seen the flattened top and profile of a steep ascent rising almost perpendicularly from the plains below, oalled the Roche à Myette. Passing still southwards through the United States-the western parts of which are now being opened up by strong and resolute backwoodsmen from the outlying districts of the Central * This illustration is taken, by permission of the authors, from the "North-West Passage by Land," by Lord Milton, M.P., and Dr. Cheadle. London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin. |