object to the eye. Fig. 1 will assist to explain this. Let a bed be a slab or board lying upon the ground, let s P be the station point where we are supposed to stand, and E the eye; fgih is the plane of glass, or picture plane, through which we see the slab. Lines from each angle of the object passing through the picture plane towards the eye are termed visual rays, and where they pass through the picture plane determine upon the plane the points of the original object; these points united by straight lines produce the perspective representation required. It must be understood that these visual rays are not limited to proceed from the angles only; they come from every part at the same time; but when representing the object we use only those lines which proceed from angles and terminations of lines, and thus determine the proportion of the object in sight upon the picture plane. It will be seen when we come to work the problems that these visual rays are drawn from the various angles and characteristic points of the plan of the object towards the station point, S P. It will be noticed, also, that it is not necessary to draw these lines beyond the picture plane, P P, but invariably in the direction of the station point. 9. The Point of Contact is that point found by continuing in the same direction any original line of the ground plan, until it meets the picture plane; if the original line touches the picture plane, it then produces its own point of contact. 10. Line of Contact is a term given to that line which is drawn perpendicularly from the point of contact; it is sometimes called a measuring line, from its being used to point, or mark off, all heights in working a perspective drawing. Of course in this case the same scale is used as that for laying out the ground plan. 11. All retiring lines have vanishing points. 12. All horizontal retiring lines have their vanishing points upon the line of sight. 13. All parallel retiring lines have the same vanishing point. 14. All horizontal lines which are parallel with the picture plane are drawn parallel with each other and with the line of sight. 15. All horizontal retiring lines forming right angles with the picture plane have the point of sight for their vanishing point. 16. All lines inclined with the horizon and with the picture plane have their vanishing points above or below the horizontal line, or line of sight, according to the angle they form with the horizon, their vanishing points being always on a line perpendicular to the vanishing point upon the line of sight to which they would have retired had they been horizontal. Observe, all heights are set off on the lines of contact; all horizontal lengths and breadths are arranged on the ground plan. As it is our intention to apply these lessons practically-that is, to make the drawings according to some given scale-it will be necessary to step aside a little from our course, and explain what is meant by a scale, and the method of constructing it, so that any one who wishes to make a perspective drawing of a building or any other object, according to some stated dimensions, may have no difficulty in this respect in carrying it out. A scale is a means by which a proportional measurement of an object is represented; or, by having a plan of that object, it is a means by which we may obtain an exact idea of all its parts in proportion to one another and to the original object. For instance, suppose a room to be 20 feet long and 15 broad, represented by a plan in the proportion of 1 inch to a foot, the drawing or plan will be then 20 inches long and 15 broad; and if we require single inches in the scale for the plan, the first inch of the scale must be divided into 12 parts. The scale being thus completed, we can measure spaces not limited to feet. Suppose the distance from one corner of the room to the side of a window should measure 6 feet 8 inches, the scale divided as above in the first division will enable us to show that distance on the plan. To construct a scale of half an inch to a foot, draw a line of any length, and upon it mark off any required number of halfinches. (See Fig. 2.) Divide the first division into twelve parts, to represent inches, or into four parts to represent spaces of 3 inches, and number the divisions as shown in the figure. To measure 9 feet 9 inches, we must place one leg of the compasses on nine of the main divisions, and the other on nine of the minor divisions, marked in Fig. 2 from a to b. either a little more or less; the length is not important, so that there be a sufficient number of parts on the scale to make it useful, but the average length of about 6 inches is the most convenient for general purposes. To obtain the average length, we raise or lower both terms, as the case may require, by multiplying or dividing each by the same figure, so that the proportion remains the same: for example, 1 inch to 7 feet, 1x6 = 6, 7 x6=42. Therefore 1 to 7 is the same proportion as 6 to 42. Again, 14 inches to 100 feet; this must be lowered, because a scale 14 inches long would be of unnecessary length, therefore 14 ÷ 2 = 7, 100 ÷ 2 = 50; so that we can make a more manageable scale of 7 inches long to represent 50 feet, which will be the same as 14 to 100. It will be rendered clearer if we propose to make a scale of 1 inch to 38 feet. The pupil will see the difficulty of dividing an inch inte 38 parts and then constructing a lengthened scale from it. To avoid this, we first raise the terms by multiplying both by 6, which will be 6 to 228, and then state the question in the form of a Rule of Three sum. But as we do not wish to go through the trouble of dividing 6 inches into 228 parts, we must find the length of line necessary to include the nearest whole number to 228, which is 200, and say as 38: 1 :: 200: 5:26. It will be seen by this that 5:26 inches to 200 feet is the same proportion as 1 inch to 38 feet, and this simplifies the work in making the scale. To do this we draw a line 5-26 inches long (to measure this distance, see Lessons in Geometry, page 113, Vol. L.), and divide it into two equal parts to represent hundreds, and the first division into ten equal parts to represent tens. (See Fig. 3.) The distance, 170 feet, measured from this scale will be from a to b. To divide a line into any given number of equal parts, see Lessons in Geometry, Problem XII., page 192, Vol. I. We will give two other examples, and leave the pupil to practise this method of constructing scales of any given proportion. Construct a scale of 1 inch to 13 feet. 13×6=78. In this case 80 is the nearest whole number to 78, to be stated thus: as 13: 1 :: 80: 6·15; therefore draw a line 6·15 inches long, and divide it into eight equal parts to represent tens, and the first division into ten equal parts to represent units. Suppose it were 2 inches to 13 feet, then we should have to raise the number 13 by 3. 13 x 3 = 39; 40 would be the nearest whole number in this case; then as 13: 2:40: 6-15. Therefore a line 6.15 inches long is to be divided into four parts to repre sent tens, and the first division into ten parts to represent units. We will now explain how a' b' c' d', on the picture plane fgik of Fig. 1, is the perspective representation of the square a bed the plan of the square. E is the eye of the spectator when he is standing at s P, the station point; Ps is the point of sight, and H L the horizontal line; the lines from a bed to E are the visual rays; the lines from a b c d to S P are the plans of the visual rays; from the points where these last lines (the plans of the rays) cut the base of the picture plane, hi, draw perpendi cular lines to cut the corresponding visual rays in a' b' e' d', join these points respectively, and then will be produced on the picture plane, f g i h, the perspective representation required. This figure is intended only to show how the plan, the eye, and the picture plane are supposed to be arranged with regard to each other, and that the point of sight, P s, is opposite the eve and on the horizontal line, H L, which is on a level with the eye. Plural. Οι Word. Singular. Island. God. Messenger. Fig. Before you attempt the following exercises, you must under λογος (m.) νησος (f.) Θεός (m.) αγγελος (m.) συκόν (n.) stand that Greek nouns in the neuter plural require their verb Nom. νήσου Θεού αγγελου συκου G.D. νησοιν Θεω Θεοιν αγγελω αγγελοιν συκω συκοιν €, but λογοιν The vocative of the words in os commonly ends in often, especially in adjectives and participles, in e; as ω φίλε, also ω φίλος; but θεος, like the Latin Deus, makes no change in the vocative. As in Latin nouns in um, the Greek neuters in ov have the same ending-namely, or in the nominative, the accusative, and the vocative; and this, too, in the plural as well as in the singular-namely, in a. The models just given are followed by adjectives in os (m.), ον (n.), ας αγαθος (αγαθη [f.], like the first declension), αγαθον; as appears in the following MODELS OF ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS OF THE SECOND The foregoing relates to adjectives of three terminations. Adjectives of two terminations are also declined in the same manner-namely, such as end in os, m. and f., and ov, n., as παγκαλος, παγκαλον, entirely beautiful: for example, ὁ παγκαλος λόγος, the entirely beautiful speech; το παγκαλον τεκνον, the entirely beautiful child. N.B. It must be well remembered that adjectives of two terminations are generally Compounds or Derivatives. For the sake of practice, I here subjoin an example of an adjective of three terminations, and one of two terminations, ad. vising you to learn them horizontally as well as perpendicularly. ADJECTIVES OF THREE AND TWO TERMINATIONS, LIKE THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. to be in the singular number. VOCABULARY. Αγαθος, -η, -ον, good. | Εταιρος, -ου, δ, & com- | Οινος, -ου, δ, wine. Αδελφος, του, δ, brother. Αλλ' (αλλα), but. Άνθρωπος, -ου, δ, ει man. Διδασκαλος, -ου, δ, εν teacher. Δουλος, ου, δ, a slave. Εργον, -ου, το, a work. Εσθλος, -η, -ον, excellent. Εχθρος,-α,-ov,hostile, hateful, δ εχθρος, the enemy. panion, friend. Θεος, δ, God, the true God. Κακος, -η, -op, bad, τα κακα(Latin,malα), evils. Καλος, -η, -ον, fair, beautiful. Κίνδυνος, ου,δ, danger Μετεχω, (with gen.), I partake, share. Μισγω (Latin,misceo, English, mix), Ι mix (acc.and dat.). Παρέχω, Ι give, bestow. Πιστος, -η, -ου, faithful. Πολλοι, -αι, -a, many, numerous. Φιλος, -η, -ον, loving, friendly. Φροντίζω (gen.), Ι care for. Χαιρω (dat.), I rejoice at. Χαλεπος, -η,-ov, hard, difficult. EXERCISE 11.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Διωκε καλα έργα, ω φιλε νεανια. 2. Πειθου τοις του διδα σκαλου λογοις. 3. Παρ' εσθλων εσθλα μανθάνεις. 4. Πιστος έταιρος των αγαθών και των κακών μετεχει. 5. Οἱ Θεοι των ανθρωπων φροντίζουσιν. 6. Οι ανθρωποι τους Θεούς θεραπευουσιν. 7. Πολλοις εργοις έπεται κινδυνος. 8. Μισγεται εσθλα κακοις. 9. Ὁ κακος τοις θεοις και τοις ανθρωποις εχθρος εστιν. 10. Οἱ αν θρωποι τοις εσθλοις χαιρουσιν. 11. Παρεχε, ω Θεος, τοις φίλοις ευτυχίαν. 12. Φερε, ω δουλε, τον οινον τῷ νεανια. 13. Ο οινος ου λυει αλλα τίκτει τας μεριμνας. 14. Χαλεπῳ ἔργῳ δοξα έπεται. EXERCISE 12.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Good men obey God. 2. Bad men obey not God. 3. Ο good youths, obey your (the) teacher. 4. Bad men are hostile to the good (the bad-the good). 5. Abstain from bad men. 6. Good men take care of their (the) children. 7. Trust not the word of a liar, O dear boy. 8. Danger follows many words. 9. Good youths honour their (the) teachers. Remarks.-The Greeks are fond of such an arrangement of words as is found in the phrase τοις του διδασκαλου λόγοις, given above. Literally, and in the Greek order, the words run -the of the teacher words; that is, the words of the teacher. Imitate this construction. In general, the Greek order of words approaches more nearly to the English than does the Latin. The sense, however, logically considered, prevails over other considerations in the Greek collocation of words. The chief place of emphasis is the commencement of a sentence, the next is the end. Not by any mere rule can the beginner acquire the tact of placing the Greek words in their idiomatic order. Of course he will study to do his best, and from attention to the sentences given in the exercises, and making them, as far as possible, models, he may learn much and make an approach to correctness; but, after all, nothing but a long and careful study of the writings of the classics themselves can give him complete skill. The student, however, is especially requested to note what is called the emphatic collocation of the adjective with its nounwhere the adjective and noun have each an article, in the following order:article, noun, article, adjective, as in το φως το αληθινον, the light, the true light (John i. 9). With this we may compare in English (especially in poetry) the repetition of a noun with the adjective for the sake of emphasis, as in Shakespeare "Farewell, a long farewell;" "A frost, a killing frost." VOCABULARY. 1. Το καλον εστι μέτρον του βιον, ουχ ὁ χρόνος. τους ανθρώπους απολύει πονων και κακων. 3. Ο οίνος ευφραίνει τους των ανθρωπων θύμους. 4. Συν μυρίοις πονοις τα καλα γιγνε5. Το θειον τους κακούς αγει προς την δίκην. β. Πιστος φιλος χρυσου και αργύρου άξιος εστιν εν χαλεπῃ διχοστασία Πολλαι νόσοι εν ανθρωποις εισιν. 8. Βουλη εις αγαθον αγει. Σιγη νεφ τιμην φερει. 10. Η θυρα μοχλοις κλειεται. ται. 9. 11. 'H LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY.—XIX. CONSTRUCTION OF THE MAP OF THE WORLD. Το construct & Map of the World, consisting of the Easter and Western Hemispheres, as in page 144, on the common projection, which is done without any regard to the principles of perspective, or the distance of a point of view, is the simplest thing in the world to him who knows how to make a circle pass τέχνη τους ανθρωπους τρεφει. 12. Ω φιλοι μαθηται, της σοφίας | through any three points on a plane, which are not in the same και της αρετης ορέγεσθε. EXERCISE 14.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. By death (dat.) men are set free from labours. 2. Many labours follow life. 3. The wisdom of the Divinity leads good men to happiness. 4. Follow the words of the judge. 5. The words of the youth are bad. 6. The lyre dissipates (Avw) the cares of the mind. 7. Silence becomes a boy. 8. Art nourishes good men. 9. The bolt shuts the door. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.-V. 1. Dishonour follows vice. 2. Bear poverty easily. 8. Thunder arises from shining lightning. 4. Virtue has excellent repute. 5. Regard to law sets right wrong judgments. 6. Justice begets justice, and injury injury. 7. Pursue a good manner of living. 8. Restrain your tongue. 9. Fortune often has (brings) changes. 10. Bear ye poverty. 11. Splendid fortunes easily fall. 12. Bear thou fortunes (changes of fortune). 13. Virtue yields not to misfortunes (fortunes). 14. Abstain from hard (severe) cares. 15. The queen has a splendid kingdom. 16. The robe is beautiful. 17. We have beautiful robes. EXERCISE 6.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. DOUTETE Tas μepipvar. 2. 'H kakia TIKTEL ATILIAN. 3. H opern dofy Спета. 4. Ραδίων φέρουσι την πενίαν. 5. 'H revia deporai padows. 6. Φέρετε την πενίαν ραδίως. 7. Εχεις μεταβολας. 8. Απέχου της κακίας. 9. Kalny σroAny exovel 10. My exe Tp Toxp. 11. 'Padios exori Ty Toxy. 12 Κατέχετε την γλωτταν. 13. Σχολιο δικαι ευθύνονται, EXERCISE 7.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Learn wisdom, O young man. 2. Politeness becomes a citizen. 8. We blame the talkativeness of a youth. 4. Avoid injustice, O dti zen. 5. We admire the art of the bird-catcher. 6. It is proper for auditors and spectators to keep silent. 7. O sailors, avoid the north wind. 8. The north wind (compare our Boreas) often injures sailors. 9. O citizens, strive after virtue. 10. The Sybarites were voluptus ries. 11. Sailors have to do with the sea. 12. Flee, O Persian. 13. The Spartans have an honourable reputation. 14. I avoid a youth (who is) a voluptuary (or a voluptuous youth, or a youth given to pleasure). 15. Abstain from chatterers. 16. Hear, O master (sovereign lord). EXERCISE 8.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Φεύγετε, ο Πέρσαι. 2. Πολιταις πρέπει ή αρετη. 3. Την ήσυχίαν άγειν προσήκει πολιτῃ. 4. Μανθάνετε, ω νεανίαι, την σοφίαν. 5. Την σοφίαν μαν θανουσι, 6. Την σοφίαν μανθάνετε. 7. Την σοφίαν μανθάνω. 8. Hoopia μανθάνεται. 9. Νεανία πρέπει ή ευκοσμία. 10. Mn Bλarte, ∞ Soppa, Tous vauras. 11. Devye, w vauтa, Tov ßoppav. 12. 'O ßoppas pevyerai. 13. Opeyou, • Σπαρτιατα, της δόξης. 14. Ησυχιαν αγετά, ο αδολεσχαι. 15. Adoλerxon ахехете. EXERCISE 9.-GREEK-ENGLISE. 1. The bravery of the Spartans was admirable. 2. Flee, O young man. 3. Do you flee, O lovers. 4. Thieves are avoided. 5. Justice becomes judges. 6. It is the duty of soldiers to fight for the citizens. 7. Avoid Hars. 8. It is the part of a master to take care of his domestics. 9. Do not trust a liar. 10. Art supports the artist. 11. From liars thieves are produced. 12. The Spartans were lovers of glory and honour. 13. Shipwreck often arises from the north wind. 14. We admire the skill of Hermes (Mercury). EXERCISE 10.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Οι της δόξης ερασται ου φευγονται. 2. Οι ψευσται της αλήθειας ουκ εισιν ερασται. 3. Η του Σπαρτιατών αρετη θαυμαστη την. 4. Μη πιστεύετε, ο Σπαρτιαται, τους ψευσταιν. 5. Ή του Έρμου τέχνη την θαυμαστη. 6. Την των Σπαρτιατων αρετην θαυμάζομεν. 7. Φευγε ψεύστην, ο Σπαρτιατα. 8. ἔστι δεσποτον, straight line. The method of doing this has been clearly shown in Problem XXXVI. in Lessons in Geometry, XV., page 49 of this volume. Now, to make the necessary projection for drawing the Map of the World, as shown in our last lesson, first draw two circles of any convenient, but of the same size, and draw in each two diameters, 0, 0, and North Pole and South Pole, at right angles to each other (Lessons in Geometry, Problem I., Vol. I., page 156); then divide each quadrant of these two circles and each radius or half of the two diameters into nine equal parts. Mark the divisions of the quadrants between 0 and North Pole, and between O and South Pole, with the numbers 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80; then it will be understood that at the point 0, the mark is 0 degrees, while at the North or South Pole the mark is 90 degrees. Next, mark the diameters of the two ciroles which are drawn across the page from 0 to 0 with the word Equator; the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere with 70; and the centre of the Western Hemisphere with 110; then, in the Eastern Hemisphere mark to the left of 70 the numbers 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 0, 10, and 20; and to the right of 70, the numbers 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, and 160. These are to denote the degrees of longitude, the first meridian being that marked 0, and the others at 10 degrees distance from each other; the meridians to the right of that marked 0 being in east longitude, and those to the left being in west longitude. Having done this, in the left-hand circle or Western Hemisphers mark to the right of 110, the numbers 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, and 20; and to the left, the numbers 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 170, and 160; but here it is necessary to remark, that in this hemisphere, all the numbers are degrees in west longitude, except the last-mentioned two, 170 and 160, which are in east longitude, because these are the continuation of the degrees in the Eastern Hemisphere, to the right, which stopped at that point, namely, 160. The degrees of longitude, whether east or west, must be limited by 180, because this number extends over onehalf of the globe either way, and the meridian marked 180 is the continuation of the meridian of Greenwich, that is, the circle which passes through 0°, 180°, and the two poles, in the meridian of Greenwich; there are some, however, who call the semicircle which extends from pole to pole, through any given place, the meridian of that place; and the opposite semicircle, the anti-meridian; but it is better to consider the meridian as a complete circle. Lastly, mark the semi-diameters or radii of each circle or hemisphere which are at right angles to the diameters marked equator, with the numbers 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80, placed consecutively from the centre of each to the poles north and south. Now draw arcs, or portions of circles, through the two points marked 80, on the north quadrants, and the point marked 80 on the north radii of both circles, and this will give the projection of the parallel of north latitude of 80° in the Northern Hemi sphere; do the same in the south quadrants and south radii of both circles, and this will give the projection of the parallel of south latitude of 80 in the Southern Hemisphere. Next, draw aros, or portions of circles, through the two points marked 70 on the north quadrante, and the point marked 70 on the north redi of both circles, and this will give the projection of the parallel of north latitude of 70° in the Northern Hemisphere; do the same in the south quadrants and south radii of both circles, and this * In the Greek the distinction between the words for queen and king-will give the projection of the parallel of 70° in the Southern dom is made merely by the accentuation: thus, queen, Bariλsia, has the accent on the antepenult (the last syllable but two, reckoning from the end), whereas Sarideía, kingdom, has the accent on the penult, or the last syllable but one. Hemisphere. Proceed in the same manner until you have projected on the map all the parallels of latitude in both hemispheres, from 80 to 10 inclusive. To draw the meridians in the Eastern Hemisphere, describe arcs of circles through the north and south poles as two points, and through each of the degrees marked 0, 10, 20, 30, etc., of longitude, whether east or west, as the third or middle point, and this will give the meridian of each point so marked, at every ten degrees from 0° to 180°, east or west; these meridians will serve as a guide to the determination of other meridians, and enable the geographer to approximate to the true position of those places which he may wish to lay down on the map, of which he has thus drawn the skeleton. By the combined help of the parallels of latitude and the meridians, the draughtsman may now set to work to fill up this skeleton map from a table of latitudes and longitudes, with the names of all the most important places in the world; he may also draw a pretty correct outline of the coast of each continent by laying down the latitudes and longitudes of as many coasting points as possible from such a table, and drawing a curve through them, as like other maps of the world as he can; the accuracy of the map increasing with the number of points laid down according to their latitudes and longitudes. In Norie's Navigation, Table 56, are given the latitudes and longitudes of the principal ports, harbours, capes, shoals, rocks, etc, in the world, founded on thousands of observations made by the most eminent astronomers and navigators; and this table will enable a true student of geography to lay down the outline of the coasts of almost all the continents, islands, and peninsulas in the Map of the World, to any scale or size which he chooses to adopt. He may then fill up the interior of these with the positions of the most important places of the world, from the tables of latitudes and longitudes usually attached to the ordinary atlases used in colleges and schools. and by referring to the diagram (Fig. 4) on that page you will see that they arise from the different positions of the earth in her orbit or path which she describes in a year in her motion round the sun. The constant inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of the orbit, or the parallelism of that axis to itself in all positions, occasions all the space around the poles to the extent of 23° 28' from each, to be alternately illuminated by the oblique rays of the sun for six months of the year, and alternately darkened by the absence of those rays for the same period. It also occasions all the space between the tropics and the equator, to the extent of 23° 28′ on each side of the equator, to receive the direct rays of the sun in succession, that is, to have the sun successively vertical to the inhabitants in every latitude, from 0° to 23° 28′ N., and from 0° to 23° 28′ S., for a period of six months alternately. It is plain, therefore, that the spaces between the tropics and the polar circles can never have the rays of the sun vertical to them; but these rays will be more or less oblique to them in the course of a year-in the former case constituting winter with its preceding autumn; and in the latter summer, with its preceding spring. The mathematical notion of the manner in which these circles are generated is the following:-Suppose the plane of the ecliptic (the real path of the earth in the heavens, and the apparent path of the sun in the heavens) to cut the globe, it must pass through the centre, o (see Fig. 4, p. 80), as the ecliptic is the path of the centre, and forms the circle whose radius is O R. This circle intersects the equator, EQ, at an angle, RO Q, of 23° 28′, called the obliquity of the ecliptic, and its two opposite points remotest from the equator (called solstitial points),* generate, by the revolution of the earth on its axis, the two tropics seen on opposite sides of E Q, the equator, the one being south of it. The extremities of the diameter of the globe at right angles to the circle of the ecliptic whose radius is O R, generate, by the same revolution, the two polar circles seen at equal distances, 23" 28', from N. and S., the north and south poles, and touching the dotted perpendicular which is the said diameter produced. We earnestly recommend all those who are studying our "Lessons in Geography" to endeavour to acquire a perfect know-PR, 23° 28' north of it, and the other at the same distance ledge of the geographical positions of places, that is, their latitudes and longitudes; for if they fail in this point, their knowledge of the world, with regard to the position of its continents, islands, peninsulas, capes, and promontories, as well as with regard to the position of its oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, and lakes, will always be obscure, indefinite, and incorrect; neither will they be able to form any proper notion of the relative distances of important places from one another, or from a central point, such as London or Paris. The doctrine of the globe is as plain to the well-instructed mariner or geographer, as the knowledge of London is to the inhabitant of fifty years' standing in that city. Were it not so, the safety of our commercial relations with our own colonies, as well as with foreign ports and countries in all parts of the world, would rest on a very insecure basis. But, thanks to the progress of mathematical and astronomical science, and thanks to the spirit of activity and mercantile enterprise, not to speak of the desire to explore unknown regions which has wonderfully manifested itself in the present century, the world is now better known than ever it was in any past age, not excepting even the palmy days of Solomon the Great, whose ships went to Ophir—that is, Africa-for gold, and in whose time silver was made as plentiful even as stones in Jerusalem. Before concluding this lesson, it may be proper to remark that there are four small circles on the globe, placed among the parallels of latitude, which serve to divide the earth into five zones (from the Greek (wn, zo'-ne, a belt) between the two poles. The two smaller circles, which are of the same size, are called the Polar Circles; the one, the Arctic, or North Polar Circle; and the other, the Antarctic, or South Polar Circle. The two larger circles, which are also of the same size, are called the Tropics; the one, the Tropic of Cancer; and the other, the Tropic of Capricorn. The polar circles are each 23° 28' distant from the poles, when that distance is measured on a meridian: and, consequently, the one, the Arctic Circle, is the parallel of latitude 66° 32′ N.; and the other, the Antarctic Circle, is the parallel of latitude at 66° 32′ S.; because the poles being 90° distant from the equator, we have 90° - 23° 28′ = 66° 32'. The Tropics are each 23° 28' distant from the equator when that distance is measured on a meridian: and, consequently, the one, the Tropic of Cancer, is the parallel of latitude at 23° 28′ N.; and the other, the Tropic of Capricorn, is the parallel of latitude at 23° 28' S.; each being at the distance of 66° 32' from the poles, because, as before, 90° 66° 32′ 23° 28'. The origin of these circles was explained in a former lesson (page 80), = The space or belt between the two tropics (from the Greek Tроños, trop'-os, turning) is called the Torrid Zone. The word torrid, which means burning, is derived from the Latin torreo, to burn or roast, and the zone is so called because it is parched by the direct rays of the sun falling on every latitude in succession during the year; its breadth is twice 23° 28′, that is, 46° 56′, measured on a meridian. The space between the Tropic of Cancer (so called, because when the sun appears to enter this constellation in the heavens, at midsummer, he seems to turn again and move towards the equator) and the Arctic Circle is called the North Temperate Zone, because the sun's rays fall neither so directly as to produce great heat, nor so obliquely as to produce great cold, although on the limits of the zone both will be felt in a very considerable degree; its breadth is 43° 4′, measured on a meridian. The space between the Tropic of Capricorn (so called, because, when the sun appears to enter this constellation in the heavens, at mid-winter, he seems to turn again and move towards the equator) and the Antarctic Circle is called the South Temperate Zone, for the same reasons as stated respecting the North Temperate Zone, and its breadth is the same, being 48° 4', measured on a meridian. The space between the Arctic (from the Greek apkтos, ark'-tos, a bear, and thence taken to mean the north, because the constellation in the heavens called the Great Bear always points to the north) Circle and the North Pole is called the North Frigid Zone, because it is always frigid or cold in this space or portion of the globe, owing to the great obliquity of the sun's rays; its breadth is 23° 28', measured on a meridian. Lastly, the space between the Antarctic (from the Greek arri, an'-ti, over against, or opposite to, and apkтos) Circle and the South Pole is called the South Frigid Zone; and its breadth is the same, being 23° 28', measured on a meridian. The following table contains the breadth of each of the zones in degrees and British miles, their surfaces in square miles, the • The term solstitial means literally sun-standing (from Latin sol, the sun, and sto, I stand); it is applied to the apparent motion of the sun at those points, which seems to be so very slow that this luminary may be said to all appearance, for a few days, to be stationary. The determination of the numbers in the second and third columns of the preceding table depends on the length of the mean diameter of the earth, which, as we have seen before, is about 7,913 British miles. Hence, the circumference of the earth is about 24,856 miles, and the mean length of a degree on its surface about 69.045 miles. Consequently, we find that the extent of the surface of the globe, including both land and water, and taking no account of the elevations and depressions of either, is about 196,662,896 square miles; and that its capacity, or solid content, is about 259,332,805,054 cubic miles. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-XIX. Mony, as in alimony, sanctimony, a Latin termination (as in parsimonia, sparingness; and matrimonium, the condition of a mother, matrimony, not in great use) which denotes a consequence, as in testimony, the result of the act of testis, a witness. Ness, as found in littleness, nothingness, is a Saxon suffix, signifying the abstract quality. If we compare littleness with the French petitesse (Old English nesse), and take in other words, as tendresse, tenderness, we are led to conjecture that the n is only a connecting consonant, and that ess or esse in both French and English are the same. Consider also the Anglo-Saxon sarenes, soreness, that is, sorrow; gelicness, likeness; heardnes, hardness; micelness, muchness, that is, greatness; and you find the same form in the root of our language. If, however, the n is not an essential part of the word, then the ness or rather ess has no connection with mess in such words as Dungeness, Sheerness, and other proper names, names of places. In these the ness comes from the German nase, and the AngloSaxon nese, and signifies nose; that is, a headland or promontory. "About six of the clock at night the wind vered to the south-west; and we weighed anker, and bare cleere of the ness, and then set our course north-east and by north until midnight, being then clear of the Yarmouth sands."-Hakluyt. Ock, as in hillock, a diminutive; so that hillock is a little hill. So bullock originally meant a young bull or calf; compare Isaiah xi. 6 with Jer. xxxi. 18, where calf and bullock are the renderings of the same Hebrew term. In the suffix ock the c sound is the essential element, the k being merely an affair of spelling, and the o (probably) a connecting vowel. Thus regarded, we find the origin of our diminutive c in the Latin diminutive c, as seen in recula (res, a thing), specula (spes, hope), nubecula (nubes, a cloud), vulpecula (vulpes, a for), etc. Another form of bullock is bulchin, obviously bull's-kin, that is, bull's child, as in the Hebrew, "steer, the son of a bull," for a bullock or calf (Exod. xxix. 1; Lev. iv. 3). "And better yet than this, a bulchin, two years old. A curled pate calf it is, and oft could have been sold." Oon, or on, an augmentive; as in balloon, or great ball. The termination oon, or on, comes to us from the Italian, but is originally from the Latin; as seen in naso, a man with a large nose; capito, a man with a large head. Like balloon is saloon in the French_salon, a place of reception (French, saluer, to salute, greet; Latin, salvus, safe). Or, a termination borrowed from the Latin or; as seen in auctor, in English, author. The correspondent Saxon ending is er, which has already been spoken of. Or denotes the agent. Or, in former times, was written our. Author properly signifies originator; the first who does anything. "The author of that which causeth anything to be, is author of that also which thereby is caused."-Hooker. "From his loins New authors of dissension spring."-Philips. Ory, a Latin suffix, seen in promontorium, a promontory (pro, forward, and mons, a mountain); and auditory, from auditorium (audire, to hear). Ose, from the Latin osus, as morosus (ill-tempered), morose. The osus in Latin is sometimes uosus; as, monstruosus, monstrous. We have the ending in imperious, imperiosus; religions, religiosus; invidious, invidiosus; suspicious, suspiciosus. The osus is Englished also by our termination y; as, ventosus, windy; lapidosus, stony. Ote, of Latin origin, found in verbs formed from the Latin participle in otus; as, to promote, from promotus (moved jorward); to devote (Latin, devotus, consecrated-votum, a vousomething sacred or set apart for the gods). "Such on Isis' temple you may find, On votive tablets to the life pourtrayed."-Dryden. Ric, as in bishopric, in Anglo-Saxon denotes power, dominion, territory; as, to-becume thin rice, i.e., thy kingdom come. Bishopric, then, is the jurisdiction of a bishop. but comes from the Anglo-Saxon scipe, denoting a state, an Ship, as in hardship, has no connection with ship, a vessel, office, a dignity; as, freond-scipe, friendship, the state of being a friend; in German, freundshaft; the shaft represents the older form of the word, which was sceaft. Here is seen the origin of worship; that is, weorth-ship, literally, worthiness. "My train are men of choice and rarest parts, And in the most exact regard support The worship of their names."-Shakespeare," King Lear." Hence "worship" is a title of honour. "Dinner is on table; my father desires your worship's company." Shakespeare, "Merry Wives of Windsor." Derivatively, "worship" signifies adoration. "Under the name of church, I understand a body or collection of human persons, professing faith in Christ, gathered together in several places of the world for the worship of the same God, and united into the same corporation."-Pearson. Sum, from the Anglo-Saxon sum, an adjective of the same meaning as our adjective some, is employed in both Anglo-Saxon and in English as a suffix; as, winsum, winsome, that is, winning. We find the termination in our present lonesome, handsome, tiresome, etc. The spelling of some in the Anglo-Saxon-namely, sum-shows the origin of our pronunciation of the word. Sound etymology would throw great light on pronunciation. Ster, str, a suffix of Anglo-Saxon origin, denoting the feminine gender, as spinster, a female spinner. We may exhibit the real meaning of nouns ending in ster, found in the Anglo-Saxon, thus In our present termination of these feminines-namely, stress, as seen in songstress-the ess or ss seems derived by attraction from the classical termination ess from ix. Originally, songstress was songestre, but by the prevalence of such forms as shepherdes, songestre was gradually drawn into songstress; and thus caus to have a double suffix, both feminine; that is, str of the Saxon, and ess of the Latin. Not inappropriately may the English language be called a medley. "Through the soft silence of the listening night, The sober-suited songstress trills her lay."-Thomson. Th, of Anglo-Saxon origin, being a termination by which adjectives are transformed into nouns; as, treowth, truth, from treowe, German treu, English true; whence troth and betrothed We find the ending in mirth (merry), dearth (dear), breadth (broad), depth (deep), etc. Tude, a Latin termination, found in latitudo (latus, broad), latitude; longitudo (longus, long), longitude. So fortitude (fortis, brave), magnitude (magnus, great), etc. Ty, from the Latin substantive termination tas; as, com moditas, commodity. Here we have an instance of the way in which derivatives often depart from the meaning of their primi tives. Commoditas in Latin means proportion, convenience, |