Work and material are paid for in cash if desired, but preferably by cheque, where a bank is convenient; payment to be made in accordance with the pay roll submitted by the commissioner accompanied by necessary receipts and accounts, and such information as may be required.

As the commutation money is not collected until the end of the season with the regular taxes, it is necessary to make arrangements with a local bank to advance the money as required, in the usual manner; the total amount so advanced being repaid to the bank before the end of the year, when the taxes have been paid in to the township.

Rate of Wages.

(6) It is not well to specify in the by-law the rate of wages to be paid commissioners and others, as this is a matter subject to change from time to time. But it is proper to state that a day shall consist of ten hours' faithful service, exclusive of the time spent going to and from work, payment to be by the hour except in case of job or contract work. The wages of men and teams will be according to the ruling rate of the locality.

Appropriation from General Funds.

(7) The by-law may provide that the council shall supplement the commutation fund by an appropriation, as previously, from the general funds, the amount so set apart to be expended by the commissioner as directed by resolution or instruction of the council. While it is frequently advisable that the commutation fund shall be returned to the road divisions in somewhat the same proportion as it is collected, yet the appropriation from the general funds need not be so divided. It may be used as previously, and is usually applied to the purchase of machinery, such jobs and contracts as have hitherto been met by the general funds, construction of bridges, culverts, improvement of hills, and other work of an exceptional nature. It may be reserved for the more durable road improvements which it is desired to extend from year to year.

Roadways, Gutters, Footpaths.

(8) The by-law may define the general dimensions of the roads to be improved, directing that the roadway between gutters shall not be less than 18 nor more than 24 feet wide according to the importance of the road; that the width shall be uniform and in the centre of the road allowance as far as practicable; that gutters or ditches shall be constructed on each side of the roadway, of sufficient depth and width to properly drain the road; that these gutters shall be lined true and straight with sides evenly sloped; that they shall have a sufficient fall to free outlets at frequent intervals, emptying into natural watercourses; that such gutters shall be kept open and free from obstruction; that all portions of the highway outside of the gutters shall be kept apart as a footpath for the convenience of persons travelling on foot, and that it shall be unlawful, under a proper penalty, for any person to travel thereon either on horseback or in a vehicle drawn by a beast of burden or propelled by steam, electricity or other motive

power.

Snow Roads.

(9) In some districts it is important to make provision for keeping snow roads open. For this purpose, the council or commissioners may

appoint men with power similar to pathmasters to collect the necessary labor and teams to open roads when blocked. Men should be appointed only for roads which will be required for traffic, as it is unnecessary to open all roads. In some cases there are certain points which are liable to become blocked, and men can be appointed for these only. A certain mileage of road may be left for the commissioner to take charge of, this to be opened by the use of snow plows. Where there are wire fences the road seldom becomes blocked, but may need to be cut down with a disk harrow and then thrown out with a snow plow. This is a matter, however, in which immediate action is necessary for travelled roads, and one or two road commissioners cannot attend to it as win other work.

The council or commissioner should therefore appoint men in different parts of the township, where required, to collect the necessary labor and act promptly when roads are blocked with snow, the men employed to be paid in cash by the council in the usual way. Or if so determined by the council, the amount earned may be accepted as part payment of taxes for the year.

GRAVEL ROADS.

In the construction of gravel roads the main points to observe are: (1) That the roadbed is first properly graded and crowned.

(2) That the drains at the sides of the road have a steady fall to a good outlet, and that every drain has an outlet.

(3) That the gravel is clean, and neither too fine nor too coarse. (4) That the gravel when dropped on the road is kept in a straight line, and is evenly spread.

(5) That, when spreading the gravel, large stones are raked forward so as to be under the next load.

(6) That old gravel roads with a solid foundation have the shoulders cut off and thrown outward--not drawn to the centre. To cut away these shoulders will frequently do the road more good than to put on a covering of new gravel.

(7) That the cost of hauling the gravel is kept at a minimum by fixing the size of the loads, and the number of loads to constitute a day's work. Gravel is very satisfactory road metal under light traffic. It is not, as a rule, so durable as broken stone. Under average conditions, one wagon load of broken stone on a road would be equal to two loads of gravel.

Good Gravel.

The best pit gravel for roadwork is clean, free from an excess of sand and clay, composed of stones of varying size up to one and one-half inches in diameter, with just enough fine stuff to fill the voids and make a compact mass. The appearance in the face of a pit, is that of an almost solid mass of pebbles, from the size of marbles up to 1 inches in diameter. Where such gravel stands upright in the pit, after the spring thaw, with no trace of slipping, it may be considered fit for use on the road without any treatment.

River gravel is frequently better than pit gravel from the fact that an excess of clay or sand is washed out of it, and it is less waterworn than lake gravel. Lake gravel, if not too coarse and shaley, makes a very good surface, but packs slowly.

The sound made by metal tires in passing over the road is a good means of judging the quality of the gravel. A continuously smooth and gritty sound is most favorable. If the gritty sound is absent the gravel contains too much earthy material, while an interrupted, intermittent sound indicates too many large stones.

"Dirty" gravel is the chief thing to avoid. Gravel containing much clay, sand or earthy material packs quickly and makes a good dry-weather road. But in the wet weather of spring and fall it turns to mud and slush, and ruts readily. It soon wears out.

Avoid very fine gravel, and gravel that packs quickly. It lacks strength and is usually dirty. It is the stone that is needed on the roads. There

is usually enough earth and clay on the roads without paying for more. A road surface of stony material will wear and keep its shape, but fine material becomes "slushy," flattens out under traffic, and the crown of the road is lost.

If the gravel is of fair quality, except for a few large stones, these stones may be raked out as it is spread on the road, and drawn forward so as to be spread under the next load. Or if large stones are too numerous to be sufficiently removed by this treatment, a man may also be stationed in the pit to rake out as many stones as possible from the gravel as it is being shovelled into the wagons.

Where gravel consists of a mass of large stones and boulders it should be treated as rock, and put through a crusher. A rotary screen attached to the crusher is always desirable to separate the crushed stone into coarse and fine grades. But where there is an excess of clay, earthy matter or sand, a rotary screen is especially useful in removing such objectionable material.

Screening Gravel.

Gravel which is not too coarse, but which is "dirty" should be screened to remove the excess of sand or clay. A rotary screen may be used, operated by steam power. The gravel can be drawn in wagons to an elevated platform, dumped into a hopper from which it passes through the rotary

screen, and from the screen to an elevated bin, from which the screened gravel is again loaded into wagons to be taken to the road, since by means of the elevated bins the expense of shovelling into wagons is saved.

The additional cost is the objection raised to screening. The cost of screening is measured by the cost of the additional handling and the amount of refuse removed; the entire cost of screening being chargeable to the quantity of clean gravel obtained for use on the road. And the profit is measured by the increased durability and to some extent by the cost of hauling from the pit to the road. Thus if half the material as it comes from the pit is screened out as useless, and the cost of hauling is 50 cents. a cubic yard, the result would be:

Cost of hauling 2 c. y. of unscreened gravel
Cost of hauling 1 c. y. screened gravel
Cost of screening

Profit on each load of screened gravel

$1.00

50c.

25c.

75

25

Screened gravel packs more slowly than does unscreened. But although it packs more slowly, the bond when finally obtained is much more durable. It is a firm mechanical clasp of one stone upon another aided by the cementing properties of the stone dust created by the stones rubbing against each other.

Gravel beds and pits should be stripped of the layer of earth and sod which usually covers them before gravel is removed from the pit. If this is not done, as the gravel is removed from beneath it, the soil and sod fall in lumps into the pit, are mixed with the gravel and are drawn with it to the road. Teamsters should be watched to see that, in their haste to get the wagons loaded, they do not unnecessarily throw in refuse, earth, sod and large stones. There is enough earth and sod already on the roads without paying for more.

Teaming Gravel.

The cost of gravel roads depends largely on the cost of hauling gravel. In teaming gravel the size of the wagon box should be fixed, and a definite number of loads should constitute a day's work. It is not uncommon to see teams going out of a pit drawing half or even quarter of a cubic yard, whereas a load should contain from a yard and a quarter to a yard and a half, weighing something over two tons.

Spreading Gravel.

Always spread the gravel. To leave it in an irregular mound as it falls from the wagons is dangerous and wasteful. When left a mound of loose material it is avoided by users of the road until late in the fall, when the muddy and rutted state of the road compels them to drive along the mound. Gradually it is flattened down and, after a year or so, during which time it has been mixed largely with the soil beneath, assumes the shape of a road. The utility of roads made in this way is largely wasted. Roads must be made for traffic, not by it.

As roads are commonly constructed with the gravel dumped loosely, the fine material sinks to the bottom, allowing the large stones to protrude and roughen the surface. In placing gravel on a road, large stones not

removed at the pit should be raked out of the material when it is being spread, and drawn forward so as to be beneath the next load. These stones should not be left in a mound but should be scattered, otherwise they create an uneven and wavy surface when the road settles.

Another cause of this wavy surface arises not only when loads of gravel are dumped without being spread, but also when the metal is improperly spread by merely "raking off" the tops of the mounds. The gravel should be dropped well back on the preceding load and then drawn forward. The gravel consolidates at the point where it is dropped from the load, and to lightly "rake off the tops" leaves a deficiency of metal between each load, causing a wavy surface.

BROKEN STONE ROADS.

Broken stone is being very largely used throughout the Province for road metal. This applies more especially to districts where suitable stone for crushing is plentiful, and where gravel is scarce or of a poor quality.

Broken stone costs more than gravel to the extent of the cost of crushing. But under heavy traffic it is much more durable than gravel, and in a term of years will very often be found a cheap road metal. The counties of Lanark and Wentworth use it largely on the county roads; and Simcoe, Wellington and Hastings use it to some extent. Among the townships using it are: Ameliasburg, Belmont, Bertie, Brighton, Burleigh, Camden East, Cornwall, Cumberland, Derby, Drummond, Hawkesbury East, Hawkesbury West, Luther East, Montague, Oxford West, Pickering, Richmond, Smith, Saltfleet, St. Vincent, Winchester, Yonge and Escott Rear.

Practical Points.

Among the most practical points to observe in the construction of broken stone roads are:

(1) That the roadbed is properly prepared to receive the broken stone by grading and draining;

(2) If the road has an old gravel or stone roadbed, it should be preserved by cutting off the shoulders of sod at the sides, throwing this material outward, never drawing it to the ceutre;

(3) That the grade is straight, hills brought to a permanent level, and all drains given a good fall to a free outlet;

(4) That the stone is placed in a straight line, and properly spread; (5) That a good quality of stone is used. Special care should be taken to avoid stones that weather or "rot" quickly. If field stones are used, cull all that are weak or brittle;

(6) That the stone is graded according to size, and the coarsest spread in the bottom and the finer on top;

(7) That a roller is used, first to compact the earth sub-grade, then to consolidate the road metal.

Broken Stone vs. Gravel.

Broken stone very often gives less satisfaction than gravel, because the latter binds quickly under traffic owing to the presence of sand and clay. To get the best service from broken stone a road roller should be used to consolidate it; otherwise the stone will roll loosely for a considerable length of time.