Prices of Food, and then often Famine Prices.- Council of State.-Movement in favor of Reform in the Chamber.-Argument in favor of parlia- mentary Reform.-Lamartine's Reply.--Reflec- tions on this Debate, and its Result.-Extension of the Railway System in France.-Close of the Session, and new Elections.--Death of the Duke of Orleans. Vast Importance of this Event. - Division of Parties on the Regency Question.- Argument of Guizot and Thiers for the Bill.- Argument of M. Lamartine for the Regency of Prosperous Condition of France in 1841.-Great material Prosperity of the Period.-Universal thirst for Gain.-Accumulating Feelings of Dis- content in the working Classes.-Great Magni- tude of the Deficits in the Revenue.-Increasing Discontent of the working Classes.-Trifling Sub- jects in Debate in the Chamber, and serious Ob- jects of Thiers.-Objects of general Thought and Interest at the same time.-Cause to which this Divergence was owing.-The Chamber of Peers afforded no Remedy for these Evils.-Extreme Danger of this State of things.-Great Mistake committed in the national Education.-Its irre- ligious Character led it to run into Socialism. Blindness of the Government and the higher Classes to the Socialist Ingers. Corruption and Influence became the great Engine of Gov- ernment. The Liberals exert all their Efforts to discredit the Government.-Louis Blanc's Picture of France at this Period.-Spread of Socialist Prin- ciples, and their Origin.-Which was aided by the Want of an adequate Currency.-Which led to a general Demand for parliamentary Reform. -Strong Feeling excited in regard to the Sub. servience of France to England.-Different Ob- ject on which the Attention of Government was set.-Position and Movements of the Catholic Clergy.--Speech of M. Arago on parliamentary Reform.-Answer of M. Thiers.-Reflections on this Debate.-Great Succession of Reform Ban- quets.--Banquet at Chatillon.-Growing Import- ance of the Question of Wages.--Speech of M. Arago on the subject.-Commencement of Com- bination and Riot in Paris.-Serious Riots in September.-Vigorous Measures of Government to suppress the Insurgents.-Causes which pro- duced this Outbreak among the working Classes. -Temporary Causes which also concurred.--Ef- fect of the general monetary Crisis.-Total Fail- ure of the Attempt to make private Railway Lines in France.--The Government undertake the Lines. -Disastrous State of the Finances in consequence. -Speech of M. Humann on the Finances.-Un- toward Commencement of the Ministry of M. Guizot.-Efforts of England for Suppression of the Slave-trade.-Treaties of 1831 and 1833 with France regarding the Slave-trade.-Treaty of December 20, 1841, between France and the Al- lied Powers.--Its Provisions.-Indignation which the Treaty excited in France and America.-In- terdiction of the Polish Banquet.--Publication of Letters ascribed to Louis Philippe.--Prosecutions against the Editors who published the Papers.- Ambiguity in regard to the Authorship of the Letters. Debate on Reform, and its Refusal.- Law on literary Property defeated.-First Step EXTERNAL AFFAIRS OF FRANCE AND EUrope, in France in the Cause of Free Trade.-M. Hu- mann's Picture of the disastrous State of the Fi- nances.--Expedient of a new Valuation.-Ex- treme Discontent produced by the new censement."-Serious Troubles at Toulouse.- Suppression of the Disturbances.-Death of M. Garnier Pagès, and Election of M. Ledru-Rollin. -Prosecution and Acquittal of Ledru-Rollin.- Attempted Assassination of the Dukes of Orleans Description of Algeria, and its three separate Re- gions.-Description of the Sahara.-Influence thence arising to the Rulers of the Tel.-Ex- treme Varieties of the Climate.-The Kabyles. -Statistics of the Colony.-Difficulties of the Colony in respect of Industry.-Exports and Im- ports. Great Importance of Algiers as a School for War.-Qualities called out in the Officers and Soldiers. Character of Changarnier.-Cavaig nac.-Canrobert.-Marshal Bugeaud.-General de Lamoricière.-General Bosquet.-Marshal St. Arnaud.-Marshal Pelissier. The Zouaves.- State of Algiers in 1840.-First Operations of the Campaign, and Capture of Medeah.-Expedition against Milianah.-Bloody Combat on the Col de Mouzaia. Campaign of 1841.-Successful Campaign of 1841.-Submission of various Tribes in the South and West.-Final Defeat and Flight of Abd-el-Kader.-His Reappearance.-Capture of the Harem of Abd-el-Kader.-Commencement of Difficulties with Marocco.-Which lead to a Rupture.-Attack on the French by the Troops of Marocco, Combat on the Mouillah.-Confer- ence between General Bedeau and the Marocco Chief. The Conference ends in Hostilities.- Commencement of Hostilities with Marocco by Sea and Land.-Bombardment of Tangiers and Mogador. Critical Position of the French, and their Resolution to fight.-Dispositions for the Battle.-Battle of Isly.-Glorious Victory of the French.-Peace with Marocco.-Campaign against the Kabyles, and fresh Efforts of Abd- el-Kader.-Capitulation of Abd-el-Kader, and its Violation by the French.-General Submission and Pacification of Algeria.-General View of Algeria, as finally acquired by the French.- Diminutive Scale still of its industrial Resources. CHAPTER XLVI. FROM THE DEATH OF THE DUKE OF ORLEANS Revolt in Sicily.--Public. tion of a Constitution CHAPTER XLVII. the Court of Rome on the subject, and Ordon- OF LOUIS PHILIPPE IN FEBRUARY, 1848. Result of the Trial, and Conviction of the -Marshal Bugeaud's Success.-M. Thiers and CHAPTER XLVIII. CHINESE WAR AND INDIAN HISTORY, FROM THE Blockade, and Arrival of Reinforcements at Pesh- CHAPTER XLIX. INDIA FROM THE TERMINATION OF THE AFGHAN- ISTAN WAR IN 1842, TO THE END OF LORD DAL- Physical Description of Scinde.-The Ameers of ture with Britain.-Invasion of Gwalior.-Battle of Maharajpore.--Victory of the British.--Loss on both sides.-General Grey's Victory.-Treaty with the Gwalior Government.-Brilliant Results of Lord Ellenborough's Administration.-Credit due to Lord Ellenborough himself.-Real Causes of the Recall.-Appointment of Sir H. Hardinge as Governor-General.-Policy recommended to Sir H. Hardinge by the Court of Directors.-Har- dinge's Arrival in India, and early pacific Meas- ures.-Importance of Railways in India, in a mil- itary as well as a civil point of view.-Origin of the Sikhs.--Description of the Sikhs, and their Power.-Geographical Description of the Coun- try.-Character of Runjeet Singh.-Character of Lord Hardinge.--Of Lord Gough.-Of Sir C. Na- pier. Position of the British Troops before the Sikh War.-Position of Affairs in Lahore.--Har- dinge resists the Concentration of the Army.- Hostile Movements of the Sikhs, and of the Brit- ish. --Immense Advantages on the side of the Sikhs.-Movements of both Parties before the Collision. Battle of Moodkee.-Desperate Na- ture of the Fight, and Victory of the British.-- March of the British Army to Ferozeshah.-Po- sition of the Sikhs, and Junction of Littler with Gough.-An Attack is resolved on.-Battle of Ferozeshah, December 21.-Terrible Night which ensued.-Gloomy Feelings of the Army, and he- roic Conduct of Hardinge and Gough.-Renewed Action on the 22d.--Fresh Dangers of the Brit- ish. Results of the Battle.-Preparations on both sides to renew the Conflict.--Subsequent Opera- tions on both sides.-Movements which led to the Battle. Battle of Aliwal.-Great Results of the Victory. Relative Position of the two Armies. -Forces on both sides, and Dispositions for the Attack.- Battle of Sobraon.--Desperate Strife which ensued.-The Victory is at last gained.- Dreadful Slaughter of the Sikhs in crossing the Bridge.--Results of the Battle.---The British army approaches Lahore, and the Sikhs sue for Peace. Terms of the Treaty.-General Joy at these Victories, and Honors bestowed on the Gener- FRANCE FROM THE FALL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE IN FEBRUARY TO THE ELECTION OF LOUIS NAPO- LEON AS PRESIDENT OF THE ASSEMBLY IN DE- Political Analogy of the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848.-Discontent which the Rule of the middle Class had excited in France.-First Acts of the Provisional Government. - Disorders around Paris.-Confusion and Pressure at the Hôtel de Ville.-Cares of the Government.-Extreme Dis- orders in Paris.-Noble Conduct of Lamartine in regard to the Drapeau Rouge.-Institution of the Garde Mobile and Volunteers.-Decrees against the ex-Ministers, and other Measures.-Reopen- ing of the Clubs, Liberation of Prisoners, Plant- ing of Trees of Liberty, and Fête of March 5.— Prostration of Credit, and Formation of the Ateliers Nationaux.-Formation of the Ateliers Nationaux.-Who was responsible for them.- Share which Louis Blanc had in them.-Real Principles of the Socialists.-Louis Blanc's real Fault. Decisive Answer to the Socialist Doc- trines.--Absence of religious Jealousy in this Revolution.--Socialist Demands of the working Classes. Acts against Free Trade, and Expulsion of English Workmen from France.-Monetary and commercial Crisis, and Resignation of M. Goudchoux as Finance Minister. M. Garnier Pagès Minister. Financial State of the Bank.— Suspension of cash Payments.--Great Effects of this Change, and its Wisdom.--Effects of this Measure, and its Extension to the provincial Banks. Deplorable State of the public Finances. --Indirect Taxes taken off by the Revolutionists, and Imposition of 45 per Cent. additional on the direct Taxes.-Universal Indignation at the In- crease of the direct Taxes. -Decree convoking the National Assembly.-Assembly postponed to May 4, and Elections to March 26.-Circular of Ledru-Rollin to the Electors.-Circular of M. Carnot, Minister of Public Instruction.-Fresh Measures of Intimidation of the Central Govern- - the Insurrection. Subsequent proceedings of the Assembly.-Commencement of an Agitation in favor of Louis Napoleon. -Increasing Con- servatism of the Electors, and Weakness of the Government. Alarming State of the Finan- ces. Steps which led to the Insurrection. - Measures against the Socialists, and general Discontent among them.-Forces on both sides. -Commencement of the Insurrection.-Prog- ress of the Insurrection.-Cavaignac's Prepara- tions and Plans of Action.-First Combats, and Appointment of Cavaignac as Dictator.-Subse- quent Actions.-Further Combats.-Storming of the Pantheon.-Murder of General Brea, and Storm of the Barricades on the left of the Seine. -Attack on the Faubourg St. Antoine.-Des- perate Resistance which ensued.-Heroism and FRANCE FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE DIC- TATORSHIP OF CAVAIGNAC TO THE ELECTION OF LOUIS NAPOLEON-JUNE 24 TO DECEMBER Extreme Embarrassment of the French Finances. -Inquiry on the Revolts of May and June.- Violence of M. Proudhon, the next Socialist Leader. Repressive legislative Measures.-M. Goudchoux's Plan for assessing Income as well as Land.-Discussion on the Constitution.-Ar- gument of Lamartine for a single Chamber.- Answer of Odillon Barrot.-Result of the Debate. -Argument in Favor of an Election of the Pres- ident by the Chamber.-Reply of Lamartine.- Result of the Division on the subject.-Adoption and Proclamation of the Constitution.-Summa- ry of it.-Renewed but abortive club Agitation. -Return of Louis Napoleon, and his Entry into the Assembly.-Renewed banquet Agitation.- Contest of Cavaignac and Louis Napoleon for the Presidency.-Position and Views of General Ca- vaiguac.-Address of Cavaignac to the Electors. -Louis Napoleon's Address. Embarrassment from the Events at Rome.-Result of the Elec- - ITALY FROM THE BREAKING OUT OF THE INSUR- RECTION IN JANUARY, 1848, TO THE PEACE BE- TWEEN AUSTRIA AND SARDINIA IN AUGUST, 1849 —FEBRUARY, 1848, TO AUGUST, 1849. State of Italy in the Spring of 1848.-Proximate Causes of the Revolution in Italy.-Effect of the Revolution of Paris at Rome and Venice.-Forces of the Austrians in Italy.-Biography of Marshal Ridetsky.-His Character.-General Hess, his Chief of the Staff.-Feeling in Lombardy on the War and Austrian Rule.-Insurrection at Milan, and Retreat of the Austrians from thence.-Final Victory of the Insurgents.-Immense Effects of this Victory to the Insurgents.-Spread of the Insurrection, and Retreat of Radetsky to the Mincio.-Forces and Movements of Charles Al- Bombardment of the City, and Concession of the Radetsky's Forces and Position.-Its weak Side, in consequence of the Insurrection in its Rear.- Measures to recover and secure the Tyrol. - Measures of the Provisional Government at Mil- an. First Operations on the Mincio.-Radetsky retires behind the Adige.-Difficulties of Charles Albert's Position.-Invasion of the Tyrol by the free Corps.-Total Defeat of the Expedition.- Charles Albert's Plan of Operations. -Com- mencement of the Attack.-Successful Attack on Pastrengo, and Retreat of the Austrians behind the Adige.-Blockade of Peschiera and Mantua.—-- Unsuccessful Attack of the King on Rivoli.-Bat- tle of Santa Lucia.-Results of the Battle, and Views of both Parties.-Count Nugent and the Army of Reserve on the Isonzo.-Fall of Udine, and Advance of Nugent to Sacile.-Passage of the Piave by the Austrians.-Junction of the Army of Reserve with the Army of Radetsky.- Important Effect of the Counter-revolution at Naples.-State of the Armies on the Adige, and Refusal of the Crown of Lombardy by Charles Albert.-Siege of Peschiera.-Radetsky's able Movement to raise the Siege. - Storming of Curtatone by the Austrians.-Repulse of the Austrians at Goito.-Fall of Peschiera.-Dan- gerous Position and Difficulties of Radetsky.- Movements of the Austrians.-March against Vi- cenza. Storming of the Monte Berici.-Return of Radetsky to Verona, and Capture of Rivoli.- Great Results of the Capture of Vicenza.-Pause in military Operations, and Preparations of both Parties. Reinforcements obtained. Distract- ed State of the Austrian Army.-Movement of Charles Albert against Mantua, and its Dangers. -Blockade of Mantua, and Relief of the Citadel of Ferrara.-Repulse of the Austrians before Riv- oli.-Movement of Radetsky against the Pied- montese Centre and Right.-Battle of Custoza.- Movements after the Battle.-Success of Charles Albert on the Somma Campagna.-Movements of the two Parties.-Second desperate Battle of Valeggio. Results of the Battle, and Retreat of the Piedmontese.-Retreat of the Piedmonteso across the Oglio and the Adda.-Continued to Milan. Capitulation of Milan.-Armistice, and desperate Measures of the Radicals. -Increased Excitement in Italy after the Fall of Milan.- Events at Florence and Leghorn.-New Ministry at Rome under Count Rossi.-Murder of Rossi.- Revolution at Rome, and Flight of the Pope.- Designs of the Italian Revolutionists after Rossi's Death.-Proclamation of a Republic in Rome, and Defection of the Swiss Guards.-Renewal of the War between Piedmont and Austria.-Forces of the Piedmontese on the Renewal of the War. -Forces of the Austrians.-Different Feelings of the two Armies on the Renewal of the War.- Description of the Theatre of War.-Advance of the two Armies, who mutually cross each other. -Concentration of the Army at Pavia.-Effect of these Movements, and Combat of Mostara.—- Position of Novara and of the two Armies.-Bat- tle of Novara.-Victory of the Austrians.-Re- sults of the Battle.-Abdication and Escape of Charles Albert.-Proceedings in the Chamber of Deputies at Turin.-Conclusion of an Armistice, and its Conditions.-The Chamber rejects the - |