while a new writer had entered the lists, Mr. C. G. Hoag, whose Theory of Interest (Macmillans) was published in February. He finds the key to the problem in the concept of the principal as a sum constant in value to the market of the kaleidoscopic society that changes with each moment of time. To the individual, however, who grows old and dies while society lives on, such a nominally equivalent sum due in the future is less valuable than the same sum at present. Hence the willingness to pay interest for loans and the unwillingness to lend without interest. Economic Psychology. Divergent views concerning the relations between economics and psychology seem to be producing three distinct types of economic theory. For example, Hoag is a frank hedonist; Professor Davenport rejects hedonism and thinks it possible to dispense with a psychological foundation for his analysis; Professor Veblen also rejects hedonism, but endeavors to provide part of a new psychological basis for economics. His Instinct of Workmanship (Macmillans) traces the cultural rôle played by man's "animus for efficiency" from the stone age to the days of capitalism. E. L. Thorndike's Original Nature of Man (Teachers' College, Columbia), though written by a psychologist for psychologists, has also aroused much interest among economists. A review of recent literature within this borderland appeared in the Quarterly Journal of Economics for November, 1914. Business Cycles.-The Cause of Business Depressions, by Hugo Bilgram and L. E. Levy (Lippincotts), argues that during prosperity the effective supply of the currency does not increase as fast as the moneywork to be done. Hence our periodical monetary stringencies, which cause business retrenchments, unemployment, and all their fellow ills. The remedy is held to lie in accepting assets, including real-estate liens, as the basis of currency. The agricultural theory of cycles has found a new and brilliant exponent in Prof. H. L. Moore (Economic Cycles, Macmillans). By a mathematical analysis of statistical data, he arrives at this law: The weather conditions represented by the rainfall in the central part of the United States, and probably in other continental areas, pass through cycles of approximately thirty-three years and eight years in duration, causing like cycles in the yield per acre of the crops; these cycles of crops constitute the natural, material current which drags upon its surface the lagging, rhythmically changing values and prices with which the economist is more immediately concerned. Theory of Rate Regulation.-Questions of the day in their economic aspects received at least their accustomed share of attention in 1914. All the economic periodicals published articles dealing with the Federal Reserve Act. The other current problems most discussed by economists were the new income tax, the new tariff law, the policy toward trusts, the regulation of railways, and the economic issues presented by the European War. All of these topics are treated in other sections of the YEAR BOOK; but it is proper to note here that the fundamental problems involved in public control over prices are gradually being submitted to a strictly scientific analysis. Most of this work deals particularly with the theory of rate regulation. J. M. Clark has compared the determination of prices under conditions of potential competition with that which obtains under the (theoretically) more familiar condition of active competition (Quart. Jour. of Economics, August, 1914). In a more concrete way, the same writer has examined the bearings of rising interest rates and of betterments made out of income upon the returns to be allowed to investors in railway securities (Am. Econ. Rev., September, 1914). Allyn A. Young has made an acute study of the fundamental principles of depreciation as related to the problems of valuation for purposes of rate control (Quart. Jour. of Economics, August, 1914). R. E. Heilman has shown the existing diversity among the methods of valuation currently used by commissions in the valuation of public utilities (ibid., February, 1914). Finally, W. Z. Ripley has published an elaborate study of railway over-capitalization, the advance guard of his eagerly-awaited book on railway finance (ibid., August, 1914). XXVII. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY PSYCHOLOGY HERBERT SIDNEY LANGFELD General. The most fundamental | the observed reactions of the individproblem of psychology, that of the re- ual or whether it should also conlation of the mental to the physical sider the reports made by the subject world, has been treated at length by of that which is going on in the mind. several scientists. H. C. Warren in Many psychologists believe in a comhis presidential address before the bination of these two methods in huAmerican Psychological Association man psychology, but J. B. Watson chose as his subject "The Mental and still maintains his radical view as to the Physical" (Psych. Rev., March, the necessity of a strictly objective 1914). He advocates as a working method. In his latest book, Behavior, hypothesis a double-aspect view, which an Introduction to Comparative Psyhe terms "monodualism." He ap-chology (Holt), he has outlined a beproaches a realistic interpretation havioristic programme, which conveys such as that consistently developed by in a concise manner his present posiE. B. Holt in his Concept of Consciousness (Macmillan). Holt believes that a last analysis reveals elements which he terms neutrals. Consciousness consists of certain relations of these neutral elements, which are not in themselves either mental or physical (see also Philosophy, infra). In H. Münsterberg's text-book, Psychology, General and Applied (Appletons), one finds the hypothesis of psychophysical parallelism. The author has divided his book into causal and purposive psychology. The first part of the book is the traditional one of analysis and explanation by reference to the underlying physiological processes. The second part is a unique departure, for a text-book. Human motives are discussed and the explanation is a teleological one. Morton Prince in The Unconscious (Macmillan) has described most clearly his idea of the mechanism of mental phenomena. tion. J. Dewey supports behaviorism in an article entitled "Psychological Doctrine and Philosophical Tendency" (Jour. of Philos., Psych., and Scientific Methods, Sept., 1914). B. H. Bode in "Psychology as a Science of Behavior" (Psych. Rev., Jan., 1914) makes a plea for a strictly objective method. E. B. Titchener (Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., liii, 1914) most strenuously opposes this movement. He closes his address with the remark: "Meanwhile introspective psychology, which is now entering upon this third stage of its scientific career, will go quietly about its task, wishing the new movement all success, but declining, with the mild persistence natural to matter of fact, either to be eliminated or to be ignored." H. C. Warren in the address mentioned above, in agreement with Titchener, believes that as psychology treats of the relation between the individual and his Methods.-Concerning general meth- environment it should study both beods of experimental psychology the havior and the events of consciousprincipal discussion still centers ness. One will see from a glance at about the question of behaviorism the Journal of Abnormal Psychology versus introspection, that is whether that the Freudian method of psychopsychology, both human and compara- analysis continues to be discussed. tive, should be entirely objective, drawing its conclusions solely from Experimental Human Psychology. -During the year there have been and Dissonance" (Psych. Monogr., Sept., 1914). He concludes that the increase in the degree of consonance is a direct result of the frequency with which an interval is heard. This has important bearing upon the modern tendencies in music as well as a theoretical significance. An interesting example of the work upon individual differences is J. W. Bridges' thesis, "An Experimental Study of Decision Types and Their Mental Correlates" (ibid., Aug., 1914). Special attention was given to a correlation of constancy and accuracy of decision and suggestibility. In the work upon the higher mental processes the introspective method continues to play a leading rôle. The two following papers are typical of this form of investigation. E. O. Finkenbinder has investigated the mental mechanism in the solution of problems (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., 1914). He found that contrary to the assertions of German and French psychologists there is no recall without mental imagery. W. S. Foster, in his work "On the Perseverative Tendency," has found that an idea never occurs entirely independently but always with the coöperation of associative processes. A good illus comparatively few investigations in psychophysiology. Most of the articles published have dealt with the higher processes, such as attention, memory and judgments. Considerable attention has been given to the investigation of individual differences both with practical and theoretical aims. The study of the affective side of mental states has also progressed and several important researches in psychological esthetics have been made. Of the investigations upon the sensations might be mentioned W. S. Hunter's article, "The After-Effect of Visual Motion" (Psych. Rev., July, 1914). There are several causes of this phenomenon, namely, retinal changes, association factors and ocular muscles. From experiments in psychophysics, S. W. Fernberger concludes that it is better to eliminate the extreme stimuli in the method of constant stimuli as he has presented it (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., 1914). In the last report from the laboratory of the University of Iowa (Psych, Monogr., June, 1914) one finds that the chief interest has been in acoustics. The papers have both theoretical and practical value. There have been several investigations performed under abnormal conditions. A. T. Pof-tration of the objective method is D. fenberger, Jr. (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., 1914), has compared the effect of strychnine with that of caffeine as reported by H. L. Hollingworth. Caffeine causes an increase in efficiency while strychnine has no effect. At the Nutrition Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in Boston, a series of tests was made Abnormal Psychology. -As was by the writer upon a man fasting mentioned above, there is much inter31 days (Psych. Monogr., July, 1914). esting literature upon the method of There was a decrease in motor effi- psychoanalysis as advocated by Freud. ciency but the higher mental pro- Many scientists disagree with Freud cesses did not seem affected. In the that disorders of the mind have invafield of emotions a most suggestive riably a sexual basis. This opposition work for psychology is W. B. Can- to his fundamental principle seems to non's physiological investigations up-be growing in this country. There has on the effect of emotions (Am. Jour. not been a great amount of purely psyof Psych., Jan., 1914). In an investi- chological work in the abnormal field gation entitled "The Expression of the reported. The increase in psychologEmotions" (Psych. Rev., Jan., 1914), ical clinics for backward children is A. M. Feleky has introduced the inter- marked, and several psychologists are esting objective method of photo- working in the hospitals. One of the graphing the facial expression. In chief interests at present is the develexperimental esthetics the most im- opment of tests. G. Stanley Hall in portant contribution is H. T. Moore's a long paper entitled "A Synthetic "The Genetic Aspect of Consonance Genetic Study of Fear" (Am. Jour. Mitchell's investigation of attention (Psych. Monogr., Oct., 1914). As is seen from the title of F. A. C. Perrin's investigation, "An Experimental and Introspective Study of the Human Learning Process in the Maze" (ibid., June, 1914), both methods have been used. of Psych., April and July, 1914) advocates the study of phobias from the mental side. In an "Experimental Study of Stuttering" (ibid., July, 1914), J. M. Fletcher asserts that stuttering is essentially a mental phenomenon and a specifically psychological problem. F. L. Wells in an interesting paper, "The Systematic Observation of the Personality in Its Relation to the Hygiene of Mind" (Psych. Rev., July, 1914), emphasizes the social aspect of characterology. Educational Psychology.-About a third of the experimental contributions to this subject are concerned with problems in the psychology of learning. The interest continues in practice curves and the best distribution of time and length of periods, transference of training and memory. The present tendency seems to be toward the testing of former laboratory findings upon large groups of children in the schools. A number of examples of such work are to be found in the current numbers of the Journal of Educational Psychology. An equal amount of attention has been given to the psychology and practical pedagogy of the common-school subjects. Some have been analytical, such as "Some Aspects of Teaching Modern Languages" by G. Stanley Hall (Ped. Seminary, June, 1914); for the most part, however, they have been concerned with determining and defining standards of work according to age and grade of pupils. A large number of articles have appeared upon the subject of mental tests, most of which are concerned with a modification of the Binet scale. The problems of units and standards of measurement seem to be the most important topics of discussion during the year and have occupied much space not only in the journals but also on the programmes of congresses. The most important book of the year is the third volume of E. L. Thorndike's Educational Psychology on "Mental Work and Fatigue and Individual Differences and their Causes." has been of most use to the science of advertising. E. K. Strong has published an article on "The Effect of Size of Advertisements and Frequency of Their Presentation" (Psych. Rev., March, 1914). H. C. McComas has made a report on "Some Tests of Efficiency in Telephone Operators" (Jour. of Philos., Psych., and Scientific Methods, May 11, 1914). The last third of H. Münsterberg's Psychology is devoted to a description of past work and a sketch of future possibilities in this branch of psychology. Animal Psychology. The progress in the study of animal behavior during the year has been principally in four directions. 1. There has been much interest in the investigation of sensory factors. The important contributions to this subject by J. B. Watson and his associates, are to be found in the former's book on Behavior (mentioned above), which is a most valuable contribution to animal psychology. The color and auditory sensations of birds and animals have been carefully investigated, for example, E. F. Tugman's work on "Light Discrimination in the English Sparrow" (Jour. of Animal Behavior, March-April, 1914). An important method for measuring the acuity of light and pattern vision has been described by H. M. Johnson (ibid., Sept.Oct., 1914). 2. To the subject of habit formation has been contributed a paper by G. C. Basset, who found that "a less than normal brain weight in a strain of rats is accompanied by a less than normal ability to form habits" (Behavior Monogr., ii, no. 4, 1914). Several important improvements have been made in the method of investigating habit formation. R. M. Yerkes and C. E. Kellogg have described “A Graphic Method of Recording Maze-Reactions” (Jour. of Animal Behavior, Jan.-Feb., 1914), and J. B. Watson has described a similar device (ibid.). 3. Much knowledge has been gained from a systematic study of instincts. G. V. Hamilton's "A Study of Sexual Tendencies in Monkeys and Applied Psychology. Large busi- Baboons" (ibid., Sept.-Oct., 1914) is ness enterprises are showing an in- important not only for its contribucreasing interest in psychological tion of facts, but also for the possimethods and principles. This year bilities of research which it suggests. several firms have added psychologists 4. The fourth direction of progress is to their staff. Thus far psychology in the study of imaginal and idea tional processes. A new method called ence, xxxix, 625). This is to provide the "delayed-reaction method" has for the comparative study of ideationbeen developed for this purpose at the al and allied types of behavior in University of Chicago. Within the man and other animals, of developsame field, R. M. Yerkes has devel- mental conditions and of pathological oped a multiple-choice method (Sci-variations. PHILOSOPHY RALPH BARTON PERRY General Philosophy.-The philo- public lectures before the Lowell Insophical thought of English-speaking stitute in Boston, and a number of countries exhibits three fairly well de- single lectures at universities of the fined and divergent tendencies. The East and Middle West. The Lowell older idealism and Hegelianism ap- Lectures have been published under pears in the work of Bradley, Bosan- the title of Our Knowledge of the Exquet, Muirhead, Mackenzie, and Mc-ternal World (Open Court Publishing Taggart in England, and in America Co.). The book has great interest in that of Royce, Bakewell, Hocking and importance as perhaps the first and the members of the Cornell school steadily recruited from the pupils of Creighton and Albee. The second tendency may be called pragmatism, instrumentalism or Bergsonism, according as the emphasis is put upon the influence of James, Dewey, or Bergson. This general movement is represented in England by Schiller, Knox and Carr; in this country by Dewey, A. W. Moore, Stuart, Bode, Woodbridge, H. C. Brown, Kallen and others. The third tendency, realism, is represented by Russell, G. E. Moore, Alexander and Nunn in England, and in this country by such men as Montague, Holt, Marvin, Pitkin, Spaulding, Perry, Cohen, and Sheffer. Realism has undoubtedly been most prominent during the year, and it will therefore be treated first. The Concept of Consciousness, by E. B. Holt (Macmillan), is undoubtedly the most important book of the year among American philosophers. It is the first systematic treatise representing the American "neo-realism." It defends the fundamental thesis of realism, that of the independence of reality on consciousness, develops a very original and important doctrine of consciousness, especially suited to serve as a foundation for a scientific psychology, and is distinguished by the rigor and nicety of its logical technic (see also Psychology, supra). Next in importance to this book is the American visit of Hon. Bertrand Russell. In addition to giving regular instruction at Harvard during the second half-year, he gave a course of public and popular presentation of the results of the new symbolic or mathematical logic. It is at the same time a plea for a new scientific philosophy, that shall abandon the more ultimate metaphysical questions and confine itself to a field where more certain, albeit less pretentious, results can be obtained. Logic of the more recent and technical sort will be the essence of this philosophy, and its most promising extension, at least for the present, will be the analysis of the so-called "external world" as this is described by the science of physics. In addition to its realism, its stress on logic, and other features already familiar to students of Mr. Russell's work, the most characteristic note in this book is its positivism, that is, its effort to simplify and avoid the speculative and dogmatic excess of which common sense as well as the older philosophies have been guilty. A more elaborate study of "The Relation of Sense-Data to Physics," containing a reduction of space, time, matter, things, and other physical conceptions to the simplest possible terms of experience, was published by Mr. Russell in Scientia in July. Some of the subject-matter of his Harvard courses has been published in a series of articles entitled "The Nature of Acquaintance" (Monist, Jan., April and July, 1914). In these articles he defends the cognitive value of immediate presentation. He also pays his respects to William James and to the American realists, criticizing the so-called "relational theory" of consciousness, |