Directly under the supervision of the President there are eight departments: State, Treasury, War, Navy, Justice, Post Office, Interior, and Agriculture, the head of each of which is called a Secretary, excepting the Post Office department and the department of Justice, over which the Postmaster General and the Attorney General respectively preside.

These officials exercise executive and administrative control over all matters pertaining to their respective departments, subject to the orders of the President.

These departments are sub-divided into divisions and bureaus, at the head of which are minor officials.

The Judicial Department consists of a Supreme Court composed of the Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices; nine Circuit Courts of Appeals, and numerous Circuit and District Courts. To these are committed the interpretation and enforcement of the laws of the United States and the trial of civil cases arising between states or citizens of different states; and other similar matters.

Wherever a case affecting an ambassador or other public minister, consuls, or any case in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court exercises original jurisdiction: other cases which come before the United States courts, and which may be appealed, are those affecting Admiralty and Maritime jurisdiction; controversies to which the United States is a party, or those between two or more states, and between a state, and the citizens of another state, or between citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state claiming land under grants of different states, or citizens of states and foreign citizens or subjects.

The Constitution exacts that faith and credit must be given in each state to the official acts of the other states. The citizens of one state must have all the privileges of the citizens of another state. Criminals fleeing from one state to another for refuge, must be delivered by the

State in which they have sought refuge, to the authorities of the state in which the crime was committed.

The powers of Congress are multitudinous, covering various things from the levying of taxes and duties, to the appropriation and spending of the public moneys. It passes laws providing for the regulation of commerce, the naturalization of foreigners, coining money, fixing the standard of weights and measures, establishing post roads and post offices, granting patents and copyrights, punishing piracies and felonies: it also declares war, grants letters, of marque and reprisal, makes rules concerning captures on land and sea, raises and supports armies, maintains a navy, calls for the militia of the states to serve the United States, and to be organized and controlled when in the service of the United States; and makes all other such laws as are necessary to carry into execution those powers. Congress also provides laws for punishment of various crimes against the United States.

The Congress of the United States is prohibited from making any appropriation to provide for the army for a period longer than two years.

Congress is expressly prohibited from enacting the following:

Any law that shall suspend the privilege of habeas corpus, except in case of invasion or rebellion it becomes necessary for the public safety.

Any bill of attainder or ex post facto law:

Any law levying a capitation tax, except in proportion to the census.

Any law levying a tax or duties upon articles passing from one state to another.

No state can receive preference over another in commerce, neither can any duties be laid upon vessels m clearing from one state to another.

No money may be drawn from the Treasury, except by appropriations made by law, and full accounts must

be published of the receipts and expenditures of public

moneys.

No person in the United States may be granted a title of nobility by Congress, and no person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, can without the consent of Congress, receive any such title or emolument or fees from any foreign power.

The several states are prohibited from entering into treaties with foreign countries or from granting letters of marque and reprisal; coining money; emitting bills of credit; passing any bill of attainder or ex post facto law, or any law impairing the obligation of contracts; granting any title of nobility; and without the consent of Congress no state may lay any impost or duties on exports or imports, and all duties and imposts laid by any state, shall be for the use of the United States. Neither shall any state, without the consent of Congress, lay any tonnage duties; keep troops or ships of war in time of peace; enter into agreements with other states or foreign powers, or engage in war unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as to admit of no delay.

Treason against the United States consists only in levying war or in adhering to or giving comfort or aid to her enemies, and no person can be convicted of treason unless two witnesses testify to the same act or by confession of the defendant.

Congress guarantees every state in the Union a Republican form of government: it protects them against invasion and domestic violence.

New states may be admitted as Congress sees fit, and all public property of the United States may be disposed of by Congress, but nothing may be construed by this so as to prejudice any claims of the United States or any particular state.

Two-thirds of both Houses may propose amendments to the Constitution. On the aplication of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, a convention will be

called for proposing an amendment, which amendment will be valid as a part of the Constitution when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several states or by conventions in three-fourths thereof.

Every United States officer is bound by oath or affirmation to support the Constitution, and no state may make laws which conflict with the Constitution.

Ten amendments were adopted in the few years following the date of the adoption of the Constitution. These amendments provide that no law respecting the establishment of religion or free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of their grievances, can be passed. They premit each state to keep a well regulated militia and prohibit the quartering of soldiers in time of peace in any house without the consent of the owner, and in time of war, only in the manner prescribed by law. They secure the people in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, and make it necessary that all warrants for seizure shall be issued only upon affirmation describing particularly the place to be searched and the person or things to be seized. No person can be held to answer for a capital or other crime, unless on a presentment or an indictment by a grand jury, excepting in time of war or public danger in cases of the army or navy; neither can a person be twice tried for the same offence or be obliged to give witness against himself; nor deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law: private property cannot be taken for public use without just compensation. In all criminal actions the accused must have a speedy, impartial public trial by jury in the district wherein the crime was committed, and have counsel for his defence and be allowed to confront the witnesses against him, and to enjoy compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor. Excessive bail cannot be required, nor excessive fines, nor unusual

or cruel punishment be inflicted. Where in common law the value of the suits in controversy exceeds twenty dollars. the right of trial by jury must be preserved. All such powers as are not delegated to the United States, nor prohibited to the states by the Constitution, are reserved to the states or to the people.

Shortly after the Civil War, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were adopted; the 13th abolishing slavery, the 14th defining more particularly the rights of citizens, and the 15th regulating and protecting the right of suffrage.

It was truly and tersely said by one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, concerning the Constitution of the United States, that "Regarding it in every point of view, with a candid and disinterested mind, I am bold to assert that it is the best form of government which has ever been offered to the world."