Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, unless for the punishment of crime, should be tolerated by government. Treason against the state consists only in levying war against it, adhering to its enemies, or giving them aid and comfort; and no person should be convicted of treason, unless on the evidence of two witnesses to some overt act or confession, in open court. Every citizen is liable to be taxed, according to his property, for the support of government, besides duties, imposts, and the government funds. When the government becomes so corrupt, imbecile, or defective, as to be useless, the people may, as a last resort, revolutionize, and form a new one. Such a bill of rights is the natural and inalienable property and inheritance of a free people, and should remain inviolate for ever.

The powers and duties of government should be so divided and balanced between the executive, the legislative, and judicial departments, as to prevent each from having an undue ascendency; and afford mutual aid and protection to each department, forming one united whole. The national legislature, or congress, should be divided between the assembly and senate, independent of each other, with a veto power lodged in the hands of the executive, except such laws as may be passed by a majority of two thirds. The government is bound to a faithful observance of the laws of nations and national treaties,--to maintain a friendly intercourse with all powers, as far as possible, without a sacrifice of national honor and principle,-to maintain peace and abstain from war, except as a necessary and last resort for self-defence, and the protection of national rights, and secure to the people a sound republican form of government, administered in good faith. The legislative power of the state should be vested in a senate and assembly, elected annually by the people, or at such deferred

periods and in such classification as will best promote the public good, duly and equally apportioned among the inhabitants, in such districts as to secure to all a full and fair representation. The supreme executive power belongs to the governor, chief magistrate, or president of the nation,-elected from the citizens by the people on general ticket, for a period not less than two nor more than four years,-distinguished for his talents, learning, and integrity. A sufficient number of other worthy and competent officers should be chosen by the people, to carry out and execute the government in all its departments. The foundation of every well-organized government is a pure and able judiciary, sufficiently numerous to bring justice home to the doors of every citizen and subject, with reasonable expense and dispatch. It is the duty of the national power to sustain the educational interests of the people; provide an efficient army and navy, and organize and support the militia; regulate commerce with foreign nations; to levy and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excise; to pay the government debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the people; establish uniform rules of naturalization and bankruptcy; coin money, and regulate the value thereof; fix the standard of weights and measures; provide laws for the prevention and punishment of crimes and misdemeanors; establish post offices and post roads; to promote civilization, the arts, sciences, and literature; to secure to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their writings and discoveries, and provide international copy-right laws for the protection of foreign authors, and thereby protect those at home; to declare war; grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make laws concerning captures on land and water; to raise and support armies; provide and maintain a navy; to execute the laws; suppress insurrection and repel

invasion; and make all laws necessary to carry on and support the government in the best manner. No money should be drawn from the treasury without appropriation made by law. The military power must be subservient to the civil power. No standing army should be kept in time of peace, and, in time of war, no appropriation for a standing army should be made for a longer time than two years. A plurality vote must control, and the majority and minority should regulate their intercourse by the principles of mutual forbearance and reciprocal concession. A judicious tariff, sufficient for the necessary protection of home industry and the expenses of government, is one of the first of national duties.

The indispensable means of government are moral suasion, legal coercion, military force, and wealth. The principal means of carrying on and maintaining a sound republican government, among a free, democratic people, is moral suasion, based upon the education and evangelical religion of the masses. Three fourths of the people in the United States are governed and controlled by this great moral power. Where moral suasion ends, legal coercion begins, and military force again follows in its turn. The former power is designed for the government of all; the two latter for the rebellious few.

Such is the Magna Charta, the constitution and laws of every well-organized government. And conformity, or non-conformity to these first principles, must ultimately decide the fate of every nation. The government of the American Union and the States contain these principles, and is unquestionably the best and most perfect government on earth. England contains most of them, and ranks next. France, under her new Constitution, has adopted many of them; and all ancient and modern nations have

flourished or perished by obeying or violating these elementary laws of their national being. Russia, Turkey, Africa, and, in fact, all modern nations, are gradually incorporating more or less of them into their government, laws, and institutions; and their progression and development are graduated accordingly. These laws of national existence, when compared with the government, history, and fall of Poland, furnish us with ample data to explain all the misfortunes of this unfortunate republic. But very few, if any, of these fundamental principles of a sound, healthy government can be found in her history. It would seem, government was what heaven denied them; and the world has done the same. With these general principles of government as our standard, we may, with better hopes of success, now advance to the study of Polish government.

SECTION II.

POLISH GOVERNMENT.

In describing the government of Poland, it will be necessary to examine its history, its principles, and its effects. Previous to the reign of Piast, which commenced early in the ninth century, the government of Poland was patriarchal, and resembled other patriarchal governments of ancient and modern times. Poland, for many centuries, was governed by an elective chief, under the title of duke, or general; but no regular dynasty was established until the accession and election of Piast in 840 A. D., or, as some reckon, in 830, which was accomplished with great difficulty. The government of the dukes and military chiefs of the north, like the more ancient patriarchs of Asia, Africa, and America,

is substantially the same as an absolute monarchy, where the will of the sovereign is the sole and absolute law, by which the government is administered with the power of life and death over the subjects.

The elevation of Piast to the throne changed the government of Poland from a patriarchal to an absolute monarchy. The power of the sovereign was controlled by his own will and the fear of his barons; who, in fact, generally ruled the kings of Poland. The reign of Piast introduced a new element into the government, by the cultivation of peace instead of war, which continued for thirty years: a period of quiet and repose never enjoyed by the nation before or since. In that early day, and among a barbarous people, which had been continually accustomed, for time immemorial, to the predatory wars of the nomad tribes, under their despotic military chiefs, it must have required a high order of talent to maintain peace and harmony among such a nation, for a period of thirty years. Yet such was the reign of Piast, whose government has ever been revered by the Poles, as the halcyon days of their history. The statesman may learn an important lesson from this reign-that men, even in a savage state, can be governed by mild means and moral suasion much better than by military force; and human nature, in its rudest state, is capable of appreciating a wise and benevolent government. Piast was a kind, humane sovereign, always consulting the good of his people, and never abused his power. And it would seem, that at this early day the Poles were capable of being governed by wise laws and moral principle, when judiciously administered. Nor were they insensible to the benevolence of Piast before and after his election; and even the hospitalities of his scanty table, and his general kindness before and