separately was found sufficient to employ the generality of the Socratic philosophers. When we examine the spirit of these different schools, the Cynics, the Cyrenaics, the Pyrrhonists, and the Megareans, (as for the schools of Elis and Eretria, we are but imperfectly acquainted with them), and lastly, that of the Platonists, we find that the first four did little more than expand the ideas of Socrates, with partial views of his system; while the latter is distinguished by a boundless activity, allied to the true Socratic spirit; and which explored all the subjects of philosophic investigation.

II. Partial Systems of the Socratics.

I. Cynics.

Authorities: Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius, VI.

GE. GOTTFR. RICHTERI Diss. de Cynicis, Lips. 1701, 4to.

J. GE. MEUSCHENII Disp. de Cynicis, Kilon. 1703, 4to.

CHRIST. GLIEB. JOECHER, Progr. de Cynicis nullâ re teneri volentibus, Lips. 1743, 4to.

FR. MENTZII Progr. de Cynismo nec Philosopho nec homine digno, Lips. 1744, 4to.

Antisthenes.

GOTTLOB LUD. RICHTER, Diss. de Vitâ, moribus, ac placitis Antisthenis Cynici, Jen. 1724, 4to.

LUD. CHR. CRELLII Progr. de Antisthene Cynico, Lips. 1728, 8vo.

119. Antisthenes, an Athenian, at first the disciple of Gorgias, afterwards the friend and admirer of Socrates, was virtuous even to excess, and proportionably arrogant. He placed the supreme good of man in virtue; which he defined to consist in abstinence and privations, as the means of assuring to us our independence of external objects: by such a course he maintained that man can reach the highest perfection, the most absolute felicity, and become like to the Deity. Nothing is so beautiful as virtue; nothing so deformed as vice; (τ' αγαθὰ καλὰ, τὰ κακὰ αἰσχρὰ); all things else are indifferent (adiápopa), and consequently unworthy of our efforts to attain them.2 On these principles he built a system of practice so excessively simple, as to exclude even the decencies of social life; and for the same reasons

Flourished about 380 B.C.

2 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 11, sqq., 103, 106.

professed a contempt for speculative science,' alleging that the natures of things are undefinable. He maintained also that opinions are all identical, and that no man can refute those of another. We must not omit his idea of one Divinity, superior to those adored by the populace.3

2

120. In spite of the unattractive austerity of his way of life, which procured him the surname of 'ATλokvev, Antisthenes, by his lofty spirit and the eccentricity of his character and conduct, drew about him a great number of partisans, who were called Cynics; either from the Cynosarges, where their master taught, or from the rudeness of their manners. Among these we remark Diogenes of Sinope,' said, on doubtful authority, to have lived in a tub; who gave himself the name of Kuwv, and made virtue and wisdom the subjects of his cynical asceticism; and after him, his disciple Crates of Thebes, and his wife, Hipparchia of Maronea; but these latter are not distinguished for having contributed any thing to the cause of science. Onesicritus of Ægina, Metrocles the brother of Hipparchia, Monimus of Syracuse, Menedemus, and Menippus, are cited, but less frequently. The Cynic school finally merged in

6

'Notwithstanding, many works of his are quoted (DIOG. LAERT. VI, 15, sqq.) of which only two speeches remain to us, printed among the Orat. Græc. of REISKE, tom. VIII, p. 52, sqq.

2 ARIST. Metaph. VIII, 3; V, 29. CIC. De Nat. Deor. I, 13.

5 Born 414, died 324 B.C.

PLAT. Sophist. p. 270.

4 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 13 et 16. 6 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 20-81.

7 The letters which bear his name (probably suppositious) are found in the Collection published by ALD. MANUTIUS, (reprinted at Geneva, 1606); twenty-two more exist, according to the notice of the unedited letters of Diogenes, etc., by M. BOISSONADE, Notices and Extracts from the MSS. in the King's Library, tom. X, p. ii, p. 122, sqq.

For remarks on this philosopher consult :

F. A. GRIMALDI, Life of Diogenes the Cynic, Naples, 1777, 8vo. CH. MAR. WIELAND, Zwкpárns paivóμevos, or Dialogues of Diogenes of Sinope, Leips. 1770; and among his works.

FRIED. MENTZI Diss. de Fastu Philosophico, virtutis colore infucato, in imagine Diogenis Cynici, Lips. 1712, 4to.

Jo. MART. BARKHUSII Apologeticum quo Diogenem Cynicum a crimine et stultitiæ et imprudentiæ expeditum sistit, Regiom. 1727, 4to.

8 DIOG. LAERT. VI, 85, sqq. Cf. Juliani Imperat. Orat. VI, ed. SPANGENB. p. 199.

that of the Stoics it made an ineffectual attempt to rise again in the centuries immediately succeeding the birth of our Lord; but without displaying their spirit, merely by affecting the exterior of the ancient Cynics.1

II. Cyrenaics.

Authorities: Xenophon, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch Sextus Empiricus, Adv. Math. VII, 11, Diog. Laert. II.

FRID. MENZII Aristippus Philosophus Socraticus, sive de ejus Vitâ, Moribus, et Dogmatibus, Commentarius, Hal. 1719, 4to.

+ BATTEUX, Elucidation of the Morals of Aristippus, to explain a passage of Horace; in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. XXVI.

+ C. M. WIELAND, Aristippus, and some of his Contemporaries, 4 vols. Leips. 1800-1802.

H. KUNHARDT, Diss. Philos. de Aristippi Philosophiâ Morali, quatenus illa ex ipsius Philosophi dictis secundum Laertium potest derivari, Helmst. 1796. 4to.

WENDT, De Philosophia Cyrenaica, 1842.

121. Aristippus of Cyrene, a colonial city of Africa, born to easy circumstances, and of a light and sportive character, had, when he first attended the conversations of Socrates, an inclination for self-indulgence, which the latter eventually succeeded in rendering more elevated, without being able to eradicate. He made the summum bonum and the Télos of man to consist in enjoyment, accompanied with good taste and freedom of mind, το κρατεῖν καί μὴ ἡττᾶςθαι ἡδονῶν ἄριστον οὐ τὸ μὴ χρῆσθαι. Other pursuits and sciences he made very light of, especially the Mathematics. His grandson Aristippus, surnamed Metrodidactus (because instructed by his mother Arete, daughter of the elder Aristippus) was the first to develope, on these principles, a complete system of the philosophy of self-indulgence (dovopos.) This sort of philosophy takes for its basis the affections, principally of the body (mán); which it divides.

1 Luciani Kvvirós, and other Dialogues.

2 Flourished 380 B.C.

DIOG. LAERT. II, 65, sqq. PLUTARCH. adv. Principem Indoct. II, p. 779. XENOPH. Memorab. II, 1; et III, 8.

4 DIOG. LAERT. II, 75.

5 DIOG. LAERT. II, 75. ARIST. Met. III, 2.

J. GE. ECK, De Arete Philosophâ, Lips. 1775, 8vo.

into pleasurable and the reverse; giving the preference to the pleasures of the senses. Its degraded object is not εὐδαιμονία, but merely present and actual enjoyment, (ἡδονὴ ev Kivýσe); allowing something to wisdom and virtue (as they were pleased to term them) as means of attaining thereto. The philosophy of these teachers (neglecting logic and the natural sciences) was confined to what they called a system of morals, built entirely on that of the sensations, as being the only objects of knowledge concerning which we are not liable to err (καταληπτέα καὶ ἀδιάYevoTa), and at the same time the only criteria of virtue.3

5

122. This species of philosophy, when it came to be compared with our notions of Truth, Justice, and Religion, gave birth to a subdivision of the sect of Cyrenaics, called also Hedonics (dovikoi). Theodorus (of Cyrene ?), surnamed the Atheist, a disciple of the second Aristippus, and probably also of the Stoic Zeno, the Sceptic Pyrrho, and others, taking, like his predecessors, Sensation for the basis of his argument, ended by denying the existence of all objects of perception; disallowed the reality of an universal criterium of Truth, and thus opened the way for the Sceptic school; framing to himself a system (Indifferentism), which excluded all difference of right and wrong, in Morals and in Religion, and assuming pleasure or gaiety (xapà), as the final end of existence. His followers denominated themselves Ocodwpeto. His disciple, Bio of Borysthenis," and Euhemerus (according to some, of Messene), made an

7 Bio the Borysthenite, called also the Sophist, lived in the middle of the third century B.C.

See BAYLE'S Dictionary; et MARIUS HOOGVLIET, Specimen Philosophico-criticum continens Diatriben de Bione Borysthenita, etc. Lugd. Bat. 1821, 4to.

8 The fragments of his work, entitled 'Iɛpà ȧvaypapń, in Diod. Sic.. Bibl. Hist. ed. VESSELING, tom. II, 633; and among the fragments of ENNIUS, who had translated them into Latin. Idem. ed. HESSEL,

application of this doctrine to the religion then prevalent1 Hegesias, who in the time of Ptolemy taught at Alexandria, a native of Cyrene and pupil of the Cyrenaic Parabates, was equally decided in maintaining the indifference of right and wrong, but asserted that perfect pleasure is unattainable in our present state (ἀδύνατον καὶ ἀνυπαρκτόν), and concluded that death was therefore preferable to life. Hence he was surnamed Πεισθάνατος. He became the founder of a sect, the Hegesiacs.

123. Anniceris of Cyrene, who appears, like Hegesias, to have been a disciple of Paræbates, and to have taught at Alexandria, endeavoured, without renouncing the principles of his sect, to get rid of their revolting consequences, and to reconcile them with our sentiments in favour of friendship and patriotism, by pleading the refined pleasures of benevolence: thus making the Cyrenaic system approximate that of Epicurus. The success of the latter caused the downfal of the Cyrenaic school.

III. Pyrrho and Timon.

Authorities: Cic. De Fin. II, 13; IV, 16. Sextus Empiricus. Diog. Laert. IX, 61, sqq. 105, sqq. Euseb. Præp. Evang. XIV, 18. Cf. the bibliography § 38, II, a.

+ G. P. DE CROUZAZ, Examination of Pyrrhonism, Ancient and Modern, folio, Hague, 1733 (French). Extracts of the same work in FORMEY, Triumph of Evidence; with a Prelim. Dissert. by M. de HALLER, Berlin, 1756, 2 vols. 8vo.

J. ARRHENII Diss. de Philosophiâ Pyrrhonia, Ups. 1708, 4to.

p. 212. See also concerning Euhemerus and Euhemerism: + SEVIN, Researches concerning the Life and Works of Euhemerus; + FourMONT, Dissertation on the Work of Euhemerus, entitled 'Iɛpà ȧvaypapń, etc.; and FOUCHER, Memoirs on the System of Euhemerus, in the Mem. of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. VIII, XV, XXXIV (all French).

1 CIC. De Nat. Deor. I, 42. PLUTARCH. Adv. Stoicos, XIV, p. 77; De Is et Osir., tom. VII, p. 420, ed. REISKE. SEXTUS, Adv. Math. IX, 17, 51, 55. DIOG. LAERT. II, 97; et IV, 46-58. DIOD. SICUL. V, 11 et 45. LACT. Div. Instit. I, 11.

2 Cro. Tusc. Quæst. I, 34. DIOG. LAERT. II, 86, 93, sqq. VAL. MAX. XVIII, 9.

J. J RAMBACH, Progr. de Hegesia wɛolaváry, Quedlimb. 1771, 4to. Idem. in his Sylloge Diss. ad rem Litterariam pertinentium, Hamb. 1790, 8vo. No. IV. 3 DIOG. LAERT. II, 96, 97.