receive the enemy when coming in the shape of a wedge; the serra, in which the lines were extended, and in making the engagement some parts of the front advanced before the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a little like the teeth of a saw.

$287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the light-armed troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line; but afterwards they were stationed in the intervals between the maniples, behind them, or on the wings, and made attack in connection with the hastati. A considerable part of the light-armed were stationed behind the triarii, to support them. The attack commenced when the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the hastati advanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. If the enemy were not forced to give way, or they were themselves pressed hard, the signal was given for retreat; on which the light-armed and the hastati drew back through the intervals of the second line, and the principes advanced to the fight. In the mean while, the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their right knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their shields, and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards; the line thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the principes were compelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the principes and the hastati being received into their intervals, renewed the action with close ranks (compressis ordinibus) and all three in a body (uno continente agmine). This united attack was then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole.

$288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be noticed. They were commonly called velites; in early times, however, rorarii and accensi, sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones, and ferentarii. They carried no shields, but slings, arrows, javelins, and swords. They were usually divided into fifteen companies (expediti manipuli, or expeditæ cohortes), and besides these there were 300 usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The light-armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin and sword.

1u. They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three lines, about forty being joined to each maniple. They were of three different classes, designated by their principal weapon; jaculatores, who hurled the javelin; sagittarii, who shot the arrow; and funditores, who cast stones or balls with the sling. There were also afterwards tragularii and balistarii, who threw stones by the aid of machines. In Plate XXXIV. fig. a, is a Roman funditor; fig. b, a sagittarius.

2 u. Those called antesignani were not the light-armed, but probably were the soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line. The position of the light-armed during battle was often changed; but it would seem that most commonly they stood in three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the triarii, and rushed forward to their attacks through the intervals between the maniples.

§ 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their army, especially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and this class of citizens enjoyed a high estimation and rank already noticed (§ 256). Even before the regular establishment of this order in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted chiefly of the noble and respectable young Romans; such indeed was the case on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most noble youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres; the same was true under the following kings, who increased their number. Towards the end of the republic, the Roman knights began to leave the military service, and thus the cavalry of the later armies was made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken into pay in the provinces where the legions were stationed. The knights of later times served only among the Prætorians, or the imperial bodyguard (cf. § 309).

§ 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from the legions, while previously they had been regarded as the same army, and been stationed especially on the wing.-The forces, commonly called ale were different from the legionary cavalry; they were bodies of light-horse, composed of foreigners and employed to guard the flanks of the army.-The number of horsemen connected with a legion has already been named (cf. §§ 276, 278, 281); commonly 300; sometimes 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (cf. § 292) had the same

number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a greater number of horsemen ; although the ratio was not always the same.

1. The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 turma, corresponding to the number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decuriæ, corresponding to the number of maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. Each turma had three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander of the whole turma; three uragi (orpayo) were under them. In how many lines the cavalry used to be drawn up for battle is not known. In an attack, the first line of turme endeavored to break the ranks of the enemy; and were supported therein by the second. If the enemy were arranged in the wedge-form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed.

2. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron on their heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal service in protecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitering the enemy, collecting forage, occupying remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing the routed foe. Where the ground was uneven, the horsemen dismounted and fought on foot.

On the Roman cavalry, Le Beau, as cited § 275, Mem. &c. vol. xxviii.—Zumpt, cited § 256. 2.

§ 291. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet threefold, but the foot were ranged in a single line, the horse were placed in a second to support them. In the year of the city 500, B. C. 252, the threefold arrangement of the legion seems to have been adopted. The cohorts have already been mentioned (281); these also had their particular arrangement, which probably was formed originally by uniting the maniples, a thing not common until later times, since in the second Punic war the separate position of the maniples was still practiced. Towards the end of the republic, the threefold division of the legionaries was abolished; and the legion now consisted of ten cohorts, each of which contained 400 or 500 men. After the time of Cæsar, the more frequent order of battle was to place four cohorts in the front line and three in each of the two others.-Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and more like the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle was a single compact line. Under later emperors, the use of the Macedonian phalanx was adopted, but it was renounced.

$292. Of the legions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that these consisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at an early period, either of choice or after subjection, entered into treaty with the Romans, and bound themselves to furnish for the field as many foot-soldiers as the Romans, with more than the Roman proportion of cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied the two wings when drawn up in battle-array.

1. A complete consular army, comprising the full quota from the allied states, contained eight legions; although the number of allies was not always exactly the same. When in process of time the allies (socii) were admitted to Roman citizenship, the distinction made between them and the Romans ceased.

2. The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service was different at different times. During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up every year, and divided between the two consuls; yet in cases of necessity we sometimes meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy.-Augustus maintained a standing army of 23 or (according to some) of 25 legions." (Kennett.)

Respecting the military establishment of the emperors, see Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. i.-Cf. § 309.

3. The forces of the placed on the flanks.

allies were termed alæ, from the circumstance of being usually They were under command of officers appointed for the purpose, called præfecti. A portion of the foot and horse of the allies, called extraordinarii, were stationed near the consul, and one troop, called ablecti, served him as a special guard.

§ 293. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of attendants, and baggage and machines of war. Among the numerous attendants were the following; the fabri, mechanics, workers in wood and metal; lixæ, sutlers, holding a sort of market; chirurgi, field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed ten to a legion; metatores, whose business was to mark out and fix the ground for encampments; frumentarii, who had the care of furnishing provisions; librarii and scribæ, who were charged with duties such as fall under the care of a quarter-master.-The proper baggage of the army (impedimenta) consisted partly of the bundles or knapsacks of the soldiers (sarcina), partly of weapons, military engines, stores, provisions, and the like, which were carried in wagons

and on beasts of burden. Each person in the cavalry had a horse and a servant (agaso) to carry his baggage. The servants and waiting boys of the legions were termed calones. Originally there were but few persons of this class, but in later times they were often so many as to surpass the number of proper soldiers.

$294. The order of march, when a Roman army moved to the field or into the camp, was usually as follows. The light-armed went in advance; then followed the heavy-armed, both foot and horse; then the persons needed to pitch and prepare the camp, to level the grounds and perform other necessary work; then the baggage of the general (dux) and of his lieutenants (legati), guarded by horsemen; then the general himself under his usual escort; then 124 horsemen; after which came the military tribunes and other officers. After these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, and last the servants and muleteers or managers of the beasts. This seems to have been the usual order of march; but it was of course changed and modified in different cases in reference to the nature of the ground, the country, and other circumstances. The order in marching out of camp was also somewhat different. And in order to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions also were required to relieve each other in position.

§ 295. Besides the arrangements for battle mentioned already (§ 286), some others adopted particularly in marching should be mentioned. The agmen quadratum was when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually that of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation of the enemy, or on a retreat; the agmen pilatum, or justum, was a close array in marching. Orbis signified not a circular form, but such a four-sided arrangement as presented a front on every side. The testudo was also an arrangement of the soldiers, in which they stood close together, raising their shields so as to form a compact covering over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in which they approached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive the enemy at a certain distance. The turris was an oblong quadrangular form, with the end or narrow side presented to the foe; laterculus was the same, considered only in its breadth.

$296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars the Grecian, but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied only for a short time during a march was called castra, and in the later ages, mansio; castra stativa signified a more permanent camp, in which the army remained for a length of time, e. g. over a winter, therefore termed castra hiberna, or through summer, castra æstiva. The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw, and rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp. The highest and freest part of it was chosen for the head-quarters of the general. This was called the prætorium, and occupied a space of four hundred feet square. Here the council of war was held. A particular spot in it was appropriated for taking the auspices, augurale; and another for the erection of the tribunal, whence the commander sometimes addressed the army. In this space were the tents of the contubernales of the general (the young Patricians who attended upon him as volunteers), and of other persons belonging to his train. Near the prætorium were the tents of the officers and the bodyguards. The entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the enemy.

§297 t. On the right of the Prætorium (E), was the Forum (v), an open space for a market, and for martial courts; and on the left the Quastorium (w), where the stores, money, arms, and the like were kept. A select portion of the cavalry, equites ablecti et evocati (0, 0) were also stationed on each side of the Prætorium, and behind them the pedites ablecti et evocati (P, P). Next were the tents of the Tribunes (**) and of the Præfects (†). Then was a passage, or free way, called principia (v), 100 feet wide, extending through the whole camp from one of the side gates (c) to the other (D). The rest of the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the center of this lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending in the opposite direction. On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (H) and the triarii (1) were cast; then beyond these tents, on each side, was another passage 50 feet wide, and then the tents of the principes (K) and hastati (L); and after another similar passage beyond these on each side, the tents of the auxiliaries, both cavalry (M) and infantry (N). These five passages were crossed at right angles, in the center, by another of the same

width, termed Via quintana (T) because five maniples were encamped on each side of it. In each tent there were eleven men, which formed a contubernium, one of them having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tents was a free space 200 feet wide, which was the place of assembling to march out of camp, and served also for defense in case of an attack from an enemy.

Around the whole camp was a ditch, fossa, and wall or rampart, vallum. The ditch or foss was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep; the rampart three feet high; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The rampart was formed of the earth thrown (agger) from the ditch, with sharp stakes (sudes) fixed therein. On each of the four sides was an opening or gate, porta, guarded by a whole cohort. These gates were called porta prætoria (A), being near the head-quarters towards the enemy; porta decumana (B), on the opposite side of the camp, called also quæstoria, as in earlier times the quæstorium was near it; porta principalis dextra (D), and porta principalis sinistra (c), being near the principia.

A plan of a consular camp is seen in Plate XXXIV. fig. P, as given in Boyd's ed, of Adam; it is drawn from the description of Polybius (Hist. vi. 24).—The letters and signs included in parentheses in the above description refer severally to the corresponding marks in the Plan. The letters Q Q, in the Plan, designate the tents occupied by the extraordinary cavalry of the allies; RR, by the extraordinary foot of the allies; SS, by strangers and occasional allies.-In fig. R is a section of a fossa, here given as twelve feet broad and nine deep; showing also the agger and sudes.

§ 298. The watches which were maintained by night were termed vigiliæ; excubiæ also signifies properly night-watches, but is used in a more general sense; statio was the name for each single post. Two tribunes had constantly the oversight of the whole camp, which the same two retained, at the longest, for two months. At their tents all the officers and leaders were required to assemble at daybreak and with them go to the general to receive his commands. The watchword (symbolum) was called tessera, from the four sides or corners of the little wooden block on which it was written.

1 u. The watchword was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them to the centurions, and by them to the soldiers. Those who carried it from the tribunes to the centurions were called tesserarii. Short commands were often written on similar tablets, and in like manner rapidly circulated through the army. Before the headquarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by night. The outworks of the camp were occupied by the light-armed. Every maniple was obliged to place four men upon guard, so that 240 men were always on the watch in a camp of two legions. The night was divided into four parts, of three hours each, also called watches, at the end of which the guards (vigiles) were relieved by a new set. The legions of the auxilia ries had also their guards and watchmen. It belonged to the cavalry to inspect the watch on duty, and make the formal round (circuitio vigilum) or visit the several posts

or stations.

2. In the discipline of the Roman camp, the soldiers were employed in various exercises, whence the army in fact took its name, exercitus. These exercises included walking and running completely armed; leaping, swimming, vaulting upon horses of wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carrying weights, attacking a wooden image of a man as an enemy, &c.-It was essential to the comfort of the soldier, that he should be able to walk or run in his full armor with perfect ease; in common marching he was obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, a load consisting of his provisions and customary utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds.The exercises were performed under the training of the campidoctores.

3. The winter quarters (castra hiberna) of the Romans were strongly fortified, and, under the emperors particularly, were furnished with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses, workshops (fabrica), an infirmary (valetudinarium), &c. Many European towns are supposed to have had their origin in such establishments; in England, particularly those whose names end in chester or cester. (Adam).—Cf. Roy's Military Antiquities in Great Britain.

$299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encircling it with troops, and the encircling lines (corona) were, in case of populous cities, some times double or triple. In the attacks upon the city they employed various methods, and engines of various sorts.

1 u. The testudo before mentioned (§ 295) was frequently used; upon the shields thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the walls. Higher walls they mounted by the help of scaling-ladders (scala).-The crates, hurdles, were a kind of basket-work of willow; they were attached as a sort of roof to stakes, borne in the hands of those who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing to make an attack; they were also employed by the besieged as a breast work on their walls, and on marches they served as fascines to fill or cover soft and miry places.-Vinee were portable sheds or mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and sixteen