The 2d period extends from Antiochus the Great to the complete conquest of Syria by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of ANTIOCHUS ASIATICUS, B. C. 69.

In the first part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews under the Maccabees, B. C. 168, in consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.-The throne of this kingdom, on its overthrow by the Romans, had been held by twenty-three successive kings, most of them lawful beirs of the house of the Seleucidæ.

For the Syrian history; Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidarum, cited P. IV. § 93. 1.-Frölich, Annales rerum Syria. Vienn. 1754.The Universal Hist. above cited, vol. 8th of the Ancient.

VIII. The Parthian; or Kingdom of the Arsacida. The Parthians occupying the country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when conquered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share of Seleucus Nicator. But under the third king of Syria they revolted and established an independent kingdom under ARSACES, B. Č. 256.

The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans; but could not be conquered. They obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian Ocean, and from Syria to the river Indus; including Bactriana, Persia, the countries in the valley of the Euphrates, and Armenia. Their capital was Hecatompylos.

The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who dethroned the Arsacidæ, and established the kingdom of MODERN PERSIA, A. D. 223.

For the Parthian history; Vaillant, as cited P. IV. § 93.-C. F. Richter, Historisch-kritischer Versuch über die Arsaciden-undSusaniden Dynastie, &c. Lpz. 1804.

$212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of these we have but two of importance; the Egyptian and the Carthaginian.

I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the Egyptian dynasty is MENES, generally supposed to be the same as MIZRAIM, son of Ham and grandson of Noah; he settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the real chronology of Egypt

commences.

A high antiquity, in part surely fabulous, was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian works now lost; one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus (cf. ◊ 201); the other, the work of Manetho, cited by Eusebius (cf. P. V. 236).

The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes to the ESCAPE of the ISRAELITES, B. C. 1492.

Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most that can be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologers place the celebrated Sesostris at the close of this period; some consider him to be the Pharaoh that was drowned in the Red Sea.

The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of PSAMMETICUS, B. C. 670, when the history begins to be authentic.

No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted for what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures.-Twelve different governments under twelve different chiefs, are said to have been united under Psammeticus.

The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of Egypt by the PERSIAN king CAMBYSES, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C. 525.

The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authority. The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common.

The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambyses to the conquest of Egypt by ALEXANDER, B. C. 332.

After the time of Cambyses, Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception of a few instances of revolt, in one of which the throne was partially re-established, had conunued subject to Persia until it now changed masters.

The 5th period is from Alexander to the subjection of the country to the Romans, resulting from the victory of AUGUSTUS in the battle of Actium, B. Č. 31.

Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of his generals, governor of Egypt; and Ptolemy, after the death of Alexander, became king of the country, B. C. 323, and commenced the dynasty of the Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, lost it by the success of her lover's rival.-Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the previous periods. In this, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new court.Egypt remained a part of the Roman empire until it was wrested away by the Saracens, A D. 640.

For the Egyptian history; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. i.—Marsham, as cited P. V. § 236.—Champollion le jeune, L'Egypte sous les Pharaons, ke Par. 1814. 2 vols. 8. (for period before Cambyses.)—For the period after Alexander, Vaillant, Historia PtoleBærum, cited P. IV. § 93. 1.-Champollion Figeac, Annales des Lagides, &c. Par. 1819. 2 vols. 8.-Cf. Mavor's Universal History, vel í. (ed. N. Y. 1804. 25 vols. 12.)—Also, the Universal History before cited, vol. i. and viii.-M. Rustel, View of Egypt. -CL § 177, also P. IV. § 16; 91. 8; § 231.

II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally divided into three periods.

The 1st period is from its Foundation by DIDO, B. C. 880, to the beginning of the wars of Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king GELON, B. C. 480.

In this period the following points are worthy of notice: (a) the origin of the city Carthage, by a Tyrian colony under Dido, in whose story much fable is mingled: (b) the pursuits of the people; commercial, like those of the Phoenicians; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guinea, by caravans with the interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world; (c) their conquests; their commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares, also the Canary Isles and Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in Spain, and the northern coast of Africa; the chief conquests were effected by Mago, and his sons and grandsons; (d) the form of government; it was a republic, but of a strongly aristocratic character; the executive consisting of two chief magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grandees, and an Assembly of the people; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popular and an aristocratic party; (e) the revenue; its sources were, 1. tributes from the subject cities and states or tribes; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports; 3. proceeds of the mines in Spain.

The 2d period extends from the beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syracuse to the beginning of the contests with Rome in the First PUNIC WAR, B. C. 264.

The principal thing which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in almost constant wars.

The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final DESTRUCTION of CARTHAGE, B. C. 146.

The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which both desired to own, furnished the occasion.-There were three wars called Punic; each disastrous to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and splendid victories of Hannibal; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 232. The third lasted only about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Carthage had existed about 700 years.

For the Carthaginian history; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. ii.-Hendrich, De Republica Carthaginiensium. 1664.-Heeren, as cited above-The Universal History, vol. xv. of the Ancient.-Böttiger's Hist. of Carthage. Lond, 1837. with a map.

213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be mentioned. Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will be accomplished by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Rome.

I. Of GREECE. The whole extent of time to be considered is 15 or 1600 years, from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province. This whole space may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into sir successive periods, each limited by distinguished events, and characterized by prominent circumstances.

1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civilization to the TROJAN WAR, 1184 B. C., and from its peculiar characteristic may be denominated fabulous.

Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction; yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated.-Civilization had its first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who laid the foundations of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. Little advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, other colonies were planted, at Athens by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, about the time of Moses (P. IV. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable progress must have been made in cultivation.

We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period; particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleusis, and the four sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic Council. The arts and sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The accounts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in the various arts pertaining to war.-But the whole history of the period exhibits that singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chivalrous adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age.

2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Trojan war to the time when the REGAL form of GOVERNMENT was ABOLISHED, about 1050 B. C. From the most important and characteristic circumstances it may be called the period of colonization.

The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this we find the country involved in fatal civil wars, in which the people, under a number

of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and oppression. These evils seem to have led to the change in the form of Government, and the substitution of the popular instead of the regal system. The same evils also probably contributed to the spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The emigrants who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes. The earliest were the Eolians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the northwestern shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the principal. The second were the Ionians, who went from Attica (originally called Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the Eolians, where Ephesus was one of their chief cities. The third were the Dorians, who migrated to Italy and Sicily, and founded numerous flourishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the most important.-In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four principal dialects in the Greek language. (Cf. P. V. § 4.)

3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the abolition of monarchy to the BEGINNING of the PERSIAN WAR, about 500 B. C.

In this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta; and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with a suitable political constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as the period of laws.

Sparta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece.-Many years later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. V. § 167; P. III. §§ 8, 9.)—The other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of his sons at Athens. In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suffered much from the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame poet of Athens, Tyrtæus. (Cf. P. V. § 53.)

In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to promote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the sons one was assassinated at a public festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge by instigating the Persians to invade his native country.

4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the CLOSE of the PERSIAN WAR, 460 B. C., a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever after looked back with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It may properly be called the period of military glory.

The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occasion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three successive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer any glory; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopyla, Salamis, Mycale, and Platea, secured immortal honor to the Greeks.-A succession of splendid names adorns the history of Athens during this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions.-The period of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the Greeks. Before it, there existed little union comparatively between the different states, and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against the common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the nominal head, but the talents, which actually controlled the public affairs, were found in the statesmen of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred, and before the close of the war she stood, as it were, the mistress of Greece.

5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian war to the SUPREMACY of PHILIP, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affairs of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth and magnificence under the influence of Pericles.-But a spirit of luxurious refinement soon took the place of the disinterested patriotism of the preceding age, and the

manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and licentiousness. This may be designated as the period of luxury.

The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest.—One of these is the protracted war between Athens and Sparta, termed the Peloponnesian. Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon fell a victim to the terrible plague which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades successively gained the predominant influence. The war was continued with slight intermissions and various successes for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle of Egos Potamos, B. C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained a final victory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in Greece, and was deprived even of her own liberties. Her walls were thrown down, and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. To this, however, the Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were expelled.

The same year was remarkable for two other events. The first was the accusation of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial for some reason was delayed several years, but the result was utterly disgraceful to the city and to all concerned (cf. P. V. § 171). The other memorable event was the expedition of Cyrus the younger, the satrap of Lydia, against his brother, the king of Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simplicity. The assistance which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, Argos, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander to whom the Persians were indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This war was terminated by a treaty, B. C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, and was alike dishonorable to all the Greeks.

The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta, were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third to seek the ascendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas.-But a war with Sparta shortly consummated her glory and exhausted her strength; she gained a brilliant victory in the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C., but was in the same instant ruined by the death of her general Epaminondas.-The successive downfall of three principal states, Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B. C. 357. (Cf. P. III. § 72.) This commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly after this contest was terminated, a new Sacred war arose, called the Amphissian; in which the council of Amphictyons appointed Philip, king of Macedon, as general and leader of their confederacy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of Demosthenes was lifted to warn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse them to united resistance. A feeble alliance with Thebes was effected, but in vain. The battle of Charonca, B. C. 337, made Philip the master of Greece.

6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the battle of Charonea, to the CAPTURE of CORINTH, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Charonea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent history exhibits little else than the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent province. We may therefore denominate this the period of decline and fall.

Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and autocrat of Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his extensive conquests. Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus; but every reader will regret his follies at Persepolis and be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon.-For twenty years after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels among his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, these contests were terminated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising Macedonia and Greece; a second Thrace and Bithynia; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia, Palestine, and Colosyria; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, including all the rest of Asia, even to the Indus.

To the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to

arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke; but jealousy between the states and the universal corruption of morals rendered their exertions fruitless. All that is really honorable and memorable in the proper affairs of the Greeks at this period, is found in the history of the Achæan league. The Achæan league was originally a confederacy between twelve small cities of Achaia, established very early, when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral even in the Peloponnesian war.

The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B. C. Subsequently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Under the presidency of Philopamen, B. C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that its alliance was sought by some of the governments of Asia. Had the other states at this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece might probably have been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced the opportunity, and shortly after this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his triumph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C.

Nothing but the Achæan league now preserved southern Greece from falling an instant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this destiny for twenty years; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth was taken, and with all its wealth and splendor committed to the flames and consumed to ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a province of Rome.

The principal heles in the study of the Grecian history are mentioned, P. V. § 7. 7. (d).—A good elementary work is Pinnoch's improved edition of Goldsmith's History of Greece, &c. Philad. 1836. 12.—A valuable text-book and guide to deeper research; 4. B. L. Heeren, States of Antiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 1828. 8.-For the later periods of Grecan history; J. Gast, Hist. of Greece from accession of Alexander till the final subjection to the Romans. Lond. 1782. 4.-Breiter. bauch, Geschichte der Achler und ihres Bundes. Lpz. 1782.

§ 214. II. ROME. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200 years; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods.

1. The 1st period includes the time from the BUILDING of the CITY, B. C. 752, to the EXPULSION of TARQUIN, B. C. 509. It may be called the Period of the Kings, or of Regal Power.

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, beginning with the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced from Eneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended that it is altogether fabulous. (P. V. § 510 )—Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. III. §§ 193, 240). Ore of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution effected by the sixth king, Servius Tullius, introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. III. § 252.) -The reign of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of his influence on the affairs of religion; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several classes of priests-During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was of very limited extent, and the people were often involved in war with the several states in their immediate vicinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and the overthrow of the regal government.

2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when the PLEBEIANS were admitted to the OFFICES of state, about 300 B. C. At the beginning of this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had become a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as the period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife.

Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised almost precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to the Plebeians or common people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or descendants from the Senators or Patres.-The first step in the undermining of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law, which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgraceful punishment to appeal from the magistrate to the people. Under the protection of this law, the people, discontented with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in the levies, which the wars with the neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patri cians to invent a new office; that of Dictator (P. III. § 248). But the dissatisfaction