various Improvements; and this can only be obtained by his having a Lease of his Farm, for a competent number of years. In whatever Districts, favourable Leases have been generally granted, at moderate Rents, Agriculture has improved ; — intelligence has extended amongst the great body of the Farmers; and, one generation has excelled another, in knowledge acquired, and in the means of employing that knowledge, for Private Advantage and Public Good.

4. We could mention many NOBLE FAMILIES, who have been accustomed, for ages, to grant Leases to their Tenants, on Easy and Liberal Terms; and Farms have remained in the occupation of one Descendant of a Family, after another, for many Generations. The Proprietors receiving a fair and equitable Rent, for their Estates; and, the Tenants improving their Farms, and living on the most friendly and familiar Terms with their Noble and Generous LANDLORDS.

5. We have often observed the difference of the results arising from well cultivated Farms, when compared with the results arising from those Farms which are under careless and slovenly management. — In the former Case, the Land is progressively improving, the Crops increasing both in quantity and quality; and the Occupiers are generally in comfortable circumstances, and very frequently in affluence. . In the latter Case, the Land is continually deteriorating, the Crops decreasing both in quantity and quality; and the Occupiers are poor and needy, and always in difficulties. Taking these circumstances into consideration, and coupling them with the advantages arising both to Landlords and Tenants, from improved methods of cultivation; we are of opinion that nothing could afford greater pleasure and satisfaction to Landed Proprietors, than to see their Tenants comfortable, prosperous, and happy; and at the same time, to witness the general Improvement of their Estates But these desirable objects can never be realized, except where the Occupiers have sufficient security for reaping the Benefits resulting from their Industry; and for being repaid, with ample interest, the Expenses attending their various Improvements.

6. It cannot be expected that a Tenant, who only holds his Farm, from Year to Year, at the pleasure of his Landlord, will feel much inclination to expend money in Draining, Irrigating, Manuring, Liming, and other substantial Improvements; when he knows that he is subject either to lose his Farm, by a Twelve Months' Notice, or to having his Rent Raised, at the end of each year, in consequence of these very Improvements. In the former Case, this would be very cruel and unjust, in his Landlord; and, in the latter Case," It would be charging the Tenant Interest, for his own Money; as was very pointedly and shrewdly observed by a Farmer, at a late Agricultural Meeting.

7. Those Landed Proprietors who let their Estates to that Party who offers the highest Rent, without taking into consideration his Qualifications and Experience as a Farmer, are generally disappointed in their expectations; for, when one Person offers a much higher Rent, than any other prudent and experienced Person will give, it is certainly an indication that the former is defective in Judgment; -not a Proficient in his Business; - or, that he has little Capital, either to lose, or to expend in Improvements; and, consequently, is acting on Speculation. Such Tenants generally impoverish the Soil, instead of improving it; — fulfil none, or very few of their Engagements; are ever in arrears with their Rents; and, commonly fail altogether, in the course of a very few years, to the great loss, vexation, and disappointment of their Landlords.

8. We sometimes read, in the Public Papers, of certain Landlords having made a deduction, on their Rentdays, of Ten, Fifteen, or Twenty per Cent; and, when

Rents have been screwed up, to the highest Pitch, Landlords have frequently no other alternative but either to make such deductions, or else to distrain upon their Tenants, for Rent and Arrears. If the Tenants held their Farms on Leases, at equitable Rents; such Reductions would seldom or never be requisite; and, although, they may be a great relief to a Tenant, when he is embarrassed, yet they always tend to destroy his Independence, and render him quite subservient to his Landlord.

9. No particular Rules or Directions can be given, for estimating the Values of Estates; so much depends on the various Qualities of the Soils, the nature of the Climate, the probable Price of Produce, the amount of Tithes and Taxes, the supply of Water, the state of the Roads, the distance from good Markets, the number and sufficiency of the Buildings, the proximity to Rail Roads and Canals, which present a ready conveyance for all marketable Productions, and for Lime, Manure, &c. &c. All these, and various other circumstances must be taken into consideration, in order to make a just Estimation of the real Value of an Estate.

10. Those Surveyors, Land Agents, and Valuers, who reside in the immediate District, are the most proper Persons to be employed, to estimate the Values of Farms and Estates; as they are most likely to be well acquainted with the Quality and Productiveness of the Land; and with all the advantages and disadvantages arising from the Locality of the Estates. We have known London Agents and Valuers, sent into distant Parts of the Country, of which they had no Practical Knowledge ; and, in consequence of their want of local Information, they have added such enormous Sums to Gentlemen's Rentrolls, that neither Old or New Tenants would occupy the Farms, under such excessive and erroneous VALUATIONS.

11. In the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire, and in the Counties of Durham and Northumberland; and, also, in the Southern Parts of Scotland, particularly in the Lothians, the Farms are generally held on Leases; and, in consequence of these Securities, the Land, with few exceptions, is in a high State of Cultivation and Productiveness. In these Counties, the Rents are much higher than they are in some of the finest Midland and Southern Counties of England, favoured, as these are, by the advantages of both Soil and Climate; and, there can be no doubt, that under the proper Leases, and by improved methods of Cultivation, the Rents might be considerably RAISED, with Benefit to both the Landholders, and the Tenants; and, also, with Advantage to the Public; for, the whole Community is greatly interested in the Improvement of AGRICULTURE.

12. Church and College Lands, and those belonging to Corporate Bodies, are generally held on Leases, at very moderate Quitrents; and it is both convenient and equitable, that Renewals of such Leases, should be granted, at the expiration of a certain stipulated number of years. On such occasions, it is both proper and just that the Tenants should pay Fines, for such Renewals, in proportion to the Improved Values of the Estates; but, as these values depend greatly upon the Good Management of the Tenants, and upon their Improved Methods of Farming; the Proprietors, therefore, ought not to demand exorbitant Improved Rents, or levy Heavy Fines, for the Renewals of such Leases; especially when much money has been expended by the Lessees.

13. The Advantage of a Landholder, in granting a Lease, arises from the Improvement of his Estate; and he may with great Propriety and Justice, demand either a Fine, for the Renewal of the Lease, or else an Additional Rent, at its expiration. In this manner, Estates might be enhanced in Value, from one Generation to another; and both Landlords, Tenants, and the Public would enjoy the advantages

arising from such Improvements, by having an increased and an increasing Supply of the Necessaries of Life, which are so requisite to meet the wants and demands of a constantly increasing POPULATION.

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14. When a Farm is out of Lease, or at liberty to be let, the most proper and general Rule, is to give the Tenant in Possession, the first Offer; unless there be something very exceptionable in his character, or in his mode of management. He is acquainted with the quality of the Soil, the Locality of the Place, the distance from the best Markets, &c. &c.; and, may probably have many attachments, and many advantageous connections. If he be advanced in years, he may have Sons or Nephews, who have been PROPERLY EDUCATED, and BROUGHT UP, as FARMERS, with expectations of succeeding him; and who may be greatly injured both in their minds and their circumstances, if they be disappointed : — under all these considerations, a Tenant in Possession, will generally be found willing to give the full amount of Rent that is warranted by his judgment, and by the experience he has obtained from Occupation.

15. When a Landlord wishes to treat with a Tenant in Possession, for a New Lease; it is always advisable to make the Contract two or three years before the expiration of the Old Lease. By this arrangement, the Tenant has no inducement to exhaust the Land, by Cropping it too severely, towards the conclusion of his Lease; and the ordinary and regular management of the Farm, suffers no interruption from any uncertainty of Tenure.

16. When circumstances arise, that render it impracticable or inexpedient to conclude a Treaty with the Tenant in Possession; then, the most proper and judicious method, is to advertise the Farm to be let, by Private Contract. This will give the Proprietor an opportunity of having a choice of Tenants; and the amount of Rent, should not be so much a consideration, as the character, experience, and circumstances of the applicants; for, it would certainly be injudicious to make choice of a Tenant who was not likely to fulfil his Contracts; although he might offer the highest Rent. The letting of Farms by Auction, is very objectionable; as this deprives the Landlord of the choice of his Tenant; for, according to the Laws and Rules of Auctions, the Highest Bidder must be the CONTRACTING PARTY.

17. During the last fifty or sixty years, the Improvements that have been made in our Arts and Manufactures, are amazing; but, comparatively speaking, very little advancement has been made in the Cultivation of the Ground, or the Art of Agriculture, except in the Breeding and Feeding of Cattle; and in this we far surpass all other Nations. - There never was a time, however, when so much attention was paid to the State of our Agriculture, and to the Improvement of the Soil, as there is at present; and, we have no doubt that these laudable efforts will shortly pervade every County; and will speedily prevail against all Old Habits and Prejudices, in every Part of the UNITED KINGDOM.

18. The Science of Chemistry has already done much towards the Advancement of nearly the whole of our Useful Arts and Manufactures; and, to its Agency we may fairly attribute the rapid Improvements that have been made in the Arts of Tanning, Bleaching, Dyeing, Calico-Printing, &c. &c.; and, there can be no doubt that it will render still greater assistance to these and many other of our Arts and Manufactures; and will ultimately bring them to a much higher degree of Perfection.

19. This Invaluable Science is now lending its efficient and effectual Aid to Agriculture, in the Analysis of the various Limestones, Chalks, Marls, Peats, Clays, Earths, Soils, &c. &c.; and in ascertaining how far their Component Parts, are favourable or unfavourable to the Production of certain Crops of Grain, and other

vegetable Produce. Also, in affording the means of discovering the substances abstracted from the Soil, by different kinds of Grain, as Wheat, Barley, Oats, Beans, Peas, &c.; and, consequently, showing by what sorts of Limes, Marls, Manures, and Composts, the Land may be again enriched, fertilized, and prepared for a succession of future Crops. By the Aid and Efficacy of Chemistry, and by Improved and Improving Methods of Cultivation and Management, the Produce of this Country may, in a very few years, be greatly increased; the Population supplied abundantly with the Necessaries of Life; and, at the same time, Gentlemen would have the Pleasure and Satisfaction of witnessing the increasing Prosperity of their Tenants, and the General Improvement of their own ESTATES.

20. Among the various Works written on the Subject of Agriculture, and the Improvement of Landed Property, we would particularly recommend Sir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, by Dr. John Shier; - Dr. Liebig's Chemistry in its Applications to Agriculture and Physiology, by Dr. Lyon Playfair; - Dr. Liebig's First and Second Series of Familiar Letters, on Chemistry, by Dr. John Gardner; - J. F. W. Johnston's Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology; - An Encyclopædia of Agriculture, by J. C. Loudon, Esq., F. L. G. Z. & H. SS. &c.; and a Treatise on Practical Agriculture, and another on Landed Property, and the Economy of Estates, by David Low, Esq.; F. R. S. E., and Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh. These Valuable Works ought to be in the Hands of every Farmer, and every Landed Proprietor, in the United Kingdom of GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

NOTE.

THE LEARNER will find an Excellent Article on the Purchasing of Leases, the Reversion of Leases, and the Renewal of Leases, in PART THE SECOND OF NESBIT'S PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC.

SECTION III.

THE METHOD OF REDUCING LOCAL OR CUSTOMARY MEASURES TO STATUTE MEASURE; AND VICE VERSA.-ALSO, THE METHOD of REDUCING SCOTCH AND IRISH MEASURES TO STATUTE MEASURE, AND VICE VERSA.

Ir has been already observed, that formerly, by custom, the Perch varied in different parts of England; and with it, consequently, the Acre also varied in proportion.

In Devonshire and part of Somersetshire, 15; in Cornwall, 18; in Lancashire, 21; and in Cheshire and Staffordshire, 24 feet were accounted a Perch.

In the Common Field-lands of Wiltshire, and in some other Counties, there was a Customary Measure of a different nature, viz. of 120, instead of 160 Statute Perches, to an Acre; consequently, 30

perches of Statute Measure, made 1 rood of Customary; or, 3 Statute roods made 1 Customary Acre; or, 30 Statute perches, made 1 rood; and 4 such roods, made 1 acre, Customary Measure.

In some places, an Acre of this Measure, was called a day-work, or a day's-work of Land.

We may also observe that the Customary Measures of Scotland and Ireland, differed very greatly from the English Statute Measure.

REMARKS.

1. By the Act 5 Geo. IV., Chap. 74; (June 17th, 1824); it is enacted, That our Present Yard shall be denominated the " Imperial Standard Yard;" and shall be the Unit or only Standard Measure of Extension, whereby all other Measures of Extension whatsoever, whether the same be lineal, superficial, or solid, shall be derived and computed; and that all Measures of Length shall be taken in Parts, or Multiples, or certain Proportions of the said Standard Yard; and that One-third Part of the said Standard Yard shall be a Foot, and the Twelfth Part of such Foot shall be an Inch; and, that the Rod, Pole, or Perch in Length, shall contain Five such Yards and a Half; the Furlong Two hundred and Twenty such Yards; and the Mile One thousand seven hundred and sixty such Yards.

2. By the same Statute, it is enacted, That all Superficial Measures shall be computed by the said Standard Yard, or by certain Parts, Multiples, or Proportions thereof; and that the Rood of Land shall contain One thousand two hundred and ten Square Yards; and that the Acre of Land shall contain Four thousand eight hundred and forty such Square Yards, being One hundred and sixty Square Rods, Poles, or Perches.

3. By the Act 5 and 6 Will. IV., Chap. 63 (September 9th, 1835;) All Local or Customary Weights and Measures, are abolished, not only in England and Wales, but also in Scotland and Ireland; but, still it is necessary to give the Methods of reducing Local or Customary Measures of Land, to Statute Measure, and vice versâ; because, in many OLD SURVEYS and OLD PLANS, the Contents are given in Local or Customary MEASURES.

NOTE.

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All the New Acts relating to Weights and Measures, extend alike to England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.

PROBLEM I.

To reduce Customary Measure to Statute Measure; or, Statute Measure to Customary Measure.

GENERAL RULES.

RULE I. To reduce Customary Measure to Statute Measure: Multiply the number of perches, customary measure, by the square feet in a square perch, customary measure; divide the product by the square feet in a square perch, statute measure, and the quotient