the individual, and hence must have for its object, not only the protection of rights, but the performance of service. In degree the extent of these functions depends upon expediency. By expediency we mean that the people draw no hard and fast line when they, consciously or unconsciously, willingly or unwillingly, delegate certain of their powers and duties to an official class. The functions of government are therefore dependent upon the condition of society as existing at the time. A knowledge of the relations of government to community, of the powers and duties of civil rulers, of the limits of governmental action, and of the tests to be applied to statutes to decide upon their validity, must be antecedent to intelligent moral action in regard to these questions. It will be seen that a nullification of just laws, and a revolt from necessary restraint, produce anarchy, which is the negation of morality; while submission to unjust statutes subverts liberty and prevents moral development. All governmental work must be judged by moral standards.

Practical Morality.-The mind having become enlightened in regard to social relations, the moral law, which was objectively developed, may now be subjectively applied, and taken as a guide to future conduct and in new experiences. Actions in particular cases need no longer be tentative, but they may be deliberately taken in the full assurance of beneficent result. Dependence upon the moral law may be made with the same assurance as upon gravitation.

Applications in School.-In school the teacher should give to the moral law a wide and varied application to as many of the occurrences of daily life as pos

sible, to accustom the pupils to examine the moral bearing of all their acts. What moral principles are involved in cleanliness of person and clothing, and attention to neatness and order in the room? Is there anything immoral in bringing dirt on the feet into the schoolroom or into the sitting-room at home? or in neglecting to put things in their proper places? or in carelessly breaking and destroying things? What has morality to say in regard to interruptions of school order to play in study hours? to inattention? to neglect of study? to waste of time?

The scope of the discussion may be widened by the introduction of questions like the following: Are amusements necessary, and in accordance with the moral law? What of dancing, ball-playing, card-playing, and other games? How much of our likings or dislikings of these amusements is the result of educational bias, and how much do they depend upon moral considerations?

What has morality to say in regard to lotteries, gambling, and horse-racing? to drinking intoxicating liquor, and to making and selling the same? To the use of tobacco, to overreaching in trade, to adulterations, to concealing defects in articles sold?

What obligations rest upon every one to earn his own living? Why should he not live upon the earnings of another? Why should he be economical in expenditure? What incentives are there to thrift, and forethought for the future? What duty rests upon youth and maturity in regard to old age?

The solution of these questions cannot be obtained from a book, nor can they be dogmatically stated by the teacher. The value of these exercises depends upon

their full and free discussion in class, the collection of facts made by the pupils bearing upon each case, the inferences derived from such facts, and the detection of fallacies of statement and inference. The teacher's work is principally directive, and he should avoid giving decisions with the air of authority, for the good to the pupils comes from the thought elicited, rather than from the conclusions stated.

Results of Moral Training.-The outcome of this moral training in homes and in schools will be individual lives enriched, ennobled, and exalted; selfishness duly controlled, and motive based upon considerations of human welfare; intelligence informing in regard to relations and obligations, and guiding to beneficent results; homes in which the gratification of personal desires is always subordinated to the general good; communities where human rights are sacred, and the patent of nobility is "service to humanity;" States founded, upon individual purity, throwing their mantle of protection around the humblest and weakest, furnishing opportunity for the most complete development of all, and establishing public justice upon the sure foundation of private character; and the final realization of the prediction upon the advent of the great Teacher: "Peace on earth and good-will to men."

CHAPTER XIV.

GENERAL COURSE OF STUDY.

IN 1878, when this book was issued, the principles it advocates, although not in any sense new, and although accepted theoretically by many teachers, had not as a whole been embodied in any course of instruction, nor applied systematically, except in the State Normal School at Warrensburg, Missouri. In 1872 the author organized this school, selected the teachers, and for three years conducted it under circumstances peculiarly favorable to educational experiment. The State Superintendent and Board of Trustees gave him sympathetic support and entire freedom in devising his course of study, and also in choosing his teachers. A brief sketch of the school may be found by referring to The Popular Science Monthly of February, 1889.

The ends sought in this school, the aims set forth by the writer of this book and the methods suggested, have since then been widely accepted, here and there adopted, and in some instances developed along the lines indicated much further than was possible, for various reasons, in 1872 or 1878.

At that time very few teachers could be found possessing the broad culture, the professional training,

and the sympathetic knowledge of children necessary in creating a harmonious school environment. Besides this, public opinion would permit only the most guarded and unobtrusive departures from the beaten track; and much the largest share of the author's work was expended in enlightening public opinion through lectures. While the author based his treatise on biological and psychological science and on such a consensus of opinion as could then be ascertained, it is plain that a detailed course of study arranged at that time must now need a considerable revision in the light of further investigation by specialists in these fields.

It is further to be considered that at present the various schools illustrating the principles herein advocated afford in their published reports valuable material for comparative study, and teachers are earnestly advised to profit by them.

Principles to be taken as a Basis.—In preparing a "Course of Study" the following principles exemplified in the preceding chapters should, however, be kept in mind, and will serve as a guide in the selection and orderly presentation of the materials needed by the child for its nurture and discipline. The subject-matter will comprise the whole domain of Nature, including, as of course, man and his thoughts and works. The elements of these subjects are found in the experience of every child, and furnish the foundation for instruction. The principles are:

First: That the object of education is the harmonious development of all the powers and faculties of the child.

Second: That the powers and faculties of the child