morning of April 16, Charles Edward tried to surprise Cumberland on Culloden Moor. The Highlanders arrived too late in the field for a surprise, but they charged as vigorously as at Preston Pans. They broke the first line of the enemy, but the second line held

firm, and they were broken in turn. Cumberland slaughtered his now helpless enemies with unrelenting cruelty, and gained for himself the name of the Butcher, which he never lost. The wounded were dragged from their hiding-places and shot, and a building in

1745-1754 LAST YEARS OF HENRY PELHAM

743

which twenty disabled Highlanders had sought refuge was burnt to the ground with the wretched fugitives inside it. Charles Edward himself wandered long amongst the mountains. Though a heavy price was set on his head, not a Highlander would betray him. At one moment, when escape seemed impossible, a young lady, Flora Macdonald, dressed him as her maidservant, and thus carried him off in safety. At last he succeeded in making his way back to France. His later life was aimless, and he sank into drunkenness. He did not die till 1788, and his brother Henry, who had become a Cardinal, survived till 1807. Henry was the last descendant, in the male line, of the House of Stuart, though there are descendants of Henrietta, the youngest daughter of Charles I., still living, amongst whom the most conspicuous is the present King of Italy.

17. The Pelhams and the King. 1745. The Pelhams made use of the struggle in Scotland to press for Pitt's admission to the ministry, and, on the king's refusal, resigned office. George II. ordered Granville (see p. 739) to form a ministry, but Granville found it impossible to gain the support of a majority in the Houses, and in forty-eight hours he gave up the task. The Pelhams were reinstated in power, bringing Pitt with them. It was the first thorough acknowledgment by a king that he was powerless in the face of Parliament. It is true that the majority commanded by the Pelhams was secured by unblushing corruption; but there was as yet no popular sentiment opposed to that corruption to which the king could appeal.

18. End of the War. 1746—1748.—The war on the Continent still continued. The French overran the Austrian Netherlands, but were checked in Italy, whilst the English were successful at sea. At last, in 1748, a general peace was made at Aix-la-Chapelle, every power restoring its conquests with the exception of Frederick, who kept Silesia for Prussia.

19. End of Henry Pelham's Ministry. 1748-1754. The remainder of Henry Pelham's ministry was uneventful. In 1582 Pope Gregory XIII. had set straight an error which had grown up in the Calendar, and the new Gregorian Calendar had by this time been adopted by most European powers. England, however, had long objected even to be set right by a Pope, and in the eighteenth century the almanac was eleven days wrong. What was really, for instance, September 11 was known in England as September 1. In 1751 an Act of Parliament ordered that eleven days should be dropped out of the calendar, in order to make the reckoning correct. Large numbers of people fancied that they were cheated out of

eleven days' pay, and mobs went about, shouting, “Give us our eleven days." In 1754 Henry Pelham died. The new constitutional doctrine that England was governed by the Cabinet, and that the Cabinet could retain office irrespective of the king's goodwill if it could secure the support of Parliament, was now fully established.

Books recommended for the further study of Part VIII.

MACAULAY, Lord.

STANHOPE, Lord.

HARROP, R.

History of England. Vols. iii.-v.

Reign of Anne.

History of England from the Peace of Utrecht.
Vols. i.-iv.

Bolingbroke.

PARNELL, Colonel. War of the Spanish Succession.

STEBBING, W. Peterborough.

LECKY, W. E. H. History of England in the Eighteenth Century.

MORLEY, J. Walpole.

Vols. i. ii.

BALLANTYNE, A. Lord Carteret.

MAHAN, Capt. A. T.

The Influence of Sea Power upon History. Chapters iv.-vii.

PART IX

THE FALL OF THE WHIGS AND THE RISE OF THE NEW TORYISM. 1754-1789

as well as in politics everything savouring of enthusiasm had long been scouted, and in polite society little of moral earnestness was to be found. There had, indeed, been much discussion as to the truth of Christianity, and for a long time there was a steady growth of opinion in favour of deism. Latterly, however, there had been a strong reaction in favour of Christian doctrines. Their noblest advocate, Butler, whose Analogy was published in 1736, writing as he did for educated men, appealed to the reason rather than to the heart. The task of moving the masses fell into the hands of John

III.

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Wesley, who had in his youth striven to live a pious, beneficent life at Oxford, where he and his followers had been nicknamed Methodists. In 1738, Wesley came to believe that no real Christianity was possible without conversion, or a supernatural conviction of salvation. That which he believed he taught, and his enthusiasm gained him followers, in whom he kindled zeal equal to his own. Wesley was a minister of the Church of England, and in that Church he wished to abide; but the clergy counted him as a madman, and, in 1739, he was obliged to gather his followers elsewhere than in churches. Whitefield, a born orator, whose views were very similar to those of Wesley, preferred to preach in the open air. He stirred the hearts of immense crowds, as many as twenty thousand sometimes coming to hear him. At Kingswood, near Bristol, the colliers flocked to him in multitudes, their tears flowing down in white streaks over faces blackened with coal-dust. Wesley was, however, the organiser of the movement, and gathered into congregations those who had been converted, teaching them to confess their sins one to another, and to relate in public their spiritual experiences. There was no room for such enthusiasm in the Church of that day, and, much against his will, Wesley was compelled to organise his congregations outside the Church. What he and Whitefield did had a value, apart from their system and teaching. They reminded their generation that man has a heart as well as a head, and that the cultivation of the intellect is not all that is necessary to raise human nature above brutality; and thus they stirred to higher and purer thoughts thousands of their countrymen who were sunk in inertness and vice. As a matter of course they were persecuted, and men of intelligence and position thought it well that it should be so.

2. Fielding and Hogarth.-In literature and art, as well as in religion, a new life was making itself manifest. Fielding, in his 'Tom Jones' and 'Joseph Andrews,' has been styled the creator of the modern novel in its portraiture of living humanity. Hogarth was undoubtedly the originator of an English school of painting. Both Fielding and Hogarth were often coarse in expression, but their tendencies were moral, and their work robust and vigorous.

3. Newcastle, Pitt, and Fox. 1754-1755.—In politics, too, the time of drowsy inaction was coming to an end. "Now," said George II., when he heard of Pelham's death, "I shall have no peace." Newcastle was, indeed, appointed First Lord of the Treasury and was regarded as Prime Minister in his brother's place, but Newcastle had not his brother's capacity for business,