is applied to the blue flag with white five-pointed stars (one for each State in the Union), used in the navy. The flag is usually displayed when the vessel is in port.

Union Label, a method adopted in the United States by trade unions for the peaceful solution of the boycott question. The union label originated in 1896 with the cigarmakers of San Francisco in their conflict with Chinese labor. Since then its application has spread till all trades-unionism looks to it as one of the most successful means of waging the struggle with combined capital. By agreement with the manufacturers the labels, copyrighted by the unions, are attached to the various products of factory and mill, each box of cigars, for instance, each newspaper, each garment, and so on. A few unions, notably the famous "Big Six" Typographical Union of New York, with nearly 6,000 members, have imposed a fine for purchasing any but labeled goods, provided they can be had.

While many unions have their own copyrighted labels, a large number employ the common label of the American Federation. Many States have passed laws imposing penalties upon counterfeiters of labels, and upon users of counterfeit labels. See AMERICAN LABOR; LABOR; UNIONISM; etc.

Union League of America, The, began in 1862 in order to check the spread of disaffection to the United States government and to "make loyalty effective." The movement was spontaneous; the members of the United States Sanitary Commission began the organization in 1862, in Ohio, Philadelphia, and New York. Leagues were formed all over the North before the end of 1863. The members were pledged to repudiate any political belief that conflicted with unconditional loyalty to the Union. Several similar orders were absorbed by the Union League. The organization distributed more than 5,000,000 political pamphlets; recruited negro regiments; sent teachers to instruct the negroes; and demanded negro suffrage in 1865. The league was gradually extended into the South among the Unionists," and during 1865-6 had a strong membership of whites in the mountain districts of that section. In 1867 negroes were admitted to the order in the South and at once nearly all of the whites deserted. From 1867 to 1876 the league and its offshoots formed the "machine" of the Radical party in the South. It controlled the negro vote absolutely and organized it well; it made all nominations for office, and severely disciplined those who disobeyed orders. A constitution and ritual were adopted for use in the South. There was a weird initiation ceremony to impress the negroes. The members swore to vote for no one except members of their own order. An ex-Confederate could not join unless he would acknowledge that his course during the war had been treason, and under no circumstances was he eligible to office in the order or to become a candidate for political office. The administration of the league was in the hands of the so-called carpet-baggers or political adventurers from the North. The local assemblies were called Councils; these together formed the Union League of America, with headquarters in each Southern State and general headquarters in New York.

In the councils the negroes were drilled in the faith of the Republican party, a catechism being prepared for that purpose. There was complaint that the league was a cause of disorder and violence among the blacks on account of its inthat the membership reached 500,000 in the cendiary teachings. At one time it was said South. In the North after 1865 the order gradually died out, the surviving leagues becoming social clubs. As an institution of Reconstruction the Union League was most important. The rigid organization and the strict control imposed by it upon the blacks, made it possible for them to vote as a race and vote the Republican ticket. Without the admirable discipline of the order, the few leaders of the Radical party in the South would have been unable to from controlling the votes of the negroes, thus prevent the Conservative or Democratic party preventing the objects of the Reconstruction.

WALTER L. FLEMING, West Virginia University.

Union League Club, The, a social and political club organized in 1860, in New York, by members of the local Republican party. It was incorporated in 1865, its avowed object being "to promote, encourage, and sustain by all proper means, absolute and unqualified loyalty to the government of the United States; to discountenance and rebuke, by moral and social influences, all disloyalty to said governIment and every attempt against the integrity of the nation"; and also to establish a library and art gallery for the collection of literature and works of art, and military trophies relating to the war. The club had a membership of about

2,000.

Union of South Africa, a legislative union of the four self-governing colonies of South Africa, effected by the South Africa Act, which was promulgated by royal proclamation of Great Britain 20 September 1909, and became effective 31 May 1910. The original provinces of the union were Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange Free State. United they are bounded on the north by German South-West Africa, Bechuanaland Protectorate, Matabeleland and Portuguese East Africa, on the east by the Indian Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and German South-West Africa.

The area of the Union is 473,184 square miles, distributed as follows: Cape Colony, 276,995 square miles; Natal, 35,371 square miles; Transvaal, 110,426 square miles; and Orange Free State, 50,392 square miles. The total population of the Union is 5,450,217, distributed as follows: Cape Colony, 2,507,500; Natal, 1,206,386; Transvaal, 1,269,951; Orange Free State, 466,380.

The capitals of the four provinces composing the Union, with their revenues and expenditures in 1910 were as follows: of Cape Colony, Cape Town, $35,520,481 revenue and $37,309,228 expenditure; of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, $17,060,301 revenue and $16,932,194 expenditure; of Transvaal, Pretoria, $27,874,646 revenue and $21,980,689 expenditure; of Orange Free State, Bloemfontein, $4,448,289 revenue and $4,629,213 expenditure.

Provision was made by which other British colonies might join the Union. Before the day

age number of passengers carried one mile on this system, per year, is 450,000,000; tons of commercial freight carried, 10,000,000. The equipment in locomotives exceeds 800; passenger cars, 600; freight cars, 21,000.

Service. The Union Pacific System service embraces several important features. One is the maintenance of "Colonist" one-way rates to the Pacific coast and principal western points every day from February to April, and from September to October. These special rates offer strong inducements for intending settlers to travel from Kansas City and other starting points, including Denver and Cheyenne; Chicago, Bloomington, and Peoria, Illinois; Saint Louis, Missouri; Saint Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota; and Memphis, Tennessee, to points in California, Utah, Montana, Washington, and Oregon.

The special daily service, with full equipment of observation cars, drawing room and private compartment sleeping cars, dining cars and electric lights, includes the "Overland Limited" and "The Los Angeles Limited." The "Fast Mail," the "Colorado Special," the "China and Japan Fast Mail," the "California and Oregon Express," the "Chicago Special," and the "Portland-Chicago Special» are also well equipped.

Earnings and Expenses. The total earnings of the road and its connections, 1905, amounted to $59,325,000; operating expenses, $32,000,000; net earnings $27,462,000.

Stock and Stockholders.- There are 14,256 stockholders in the Union Pacific Railroad Company. The common stock outstanding is valued at $108,772,000; preferred stock, $100,000,000. The bonded indebtedness of the company is $187,257,000. The rate per cent paid, last dividend (1 Oct. 1905) was: common, 22 per cent; preferred, 2 per cent. The highest common stock quotations, 1904, were: highest, 117; lowest, 71; preferred, 1904, highest, 98; lowest, 862. The highest common stock quotations, 1905, were 138%; lowest, 113; highest preferred stock quotations, 1905, were: highest, 1015%; lowest, 952.

Water Service. The water service covers a large area and embraces several steamship lines, including routes between San Francisco and Portland, on the Columbia River, to the East to Panama, and in other directions.

Tourist Service.- Tourist cars run to and from California and Oregon daily, via Omaha, supplying all facilities required for this special

service.

History of the Road-The Union Pacific Railroad Company was formed "for the purpose of acquiring, constructing, and owning railroads in the State of Utah, and elsewhere, with specific authority to acquire the railroads, properties, franchises, and land grants formerly belonging to the Union Pacific Railway Company. That corporation owned four divisions of railroad, with a total length of lines of 8,172 miles. In 1893, receivers were appointed for all lines except those owned jointly with other companies. Afterwards, separate receivers were appointed for some of the controlled roads.

When the Union Pacific Railway Company was first placed in the hands of receivers, the bonds outstanding aggregated $78,470,000. In addition to this amount, the government sub

sidy bonds amounted to $33,540,000. On this latter amount, the unpaid interest was $18,194,000. At that time the share capital of the company aggregated $60,869,000. A short time after the receivers had taken possession of the property, legislation to guarantee a Federal government lien at 3 per cent was proposed in Congress. The security holders at the same time put forward a re-organization method. Both plans were defeated.

In 1897 the main line, from Council Bluffs to a point five miles west of Ogden, Utah, a distance of 1,048 miles, together with 70 per cent of the equipment, was sold under foreclosure and purchased by the re-organization committee, which later, borrowed $44,000,000 from a syndicate. Following this event many extensions were made. In 1899, control was acquired of the Oregon Short Line Railroad. This purchase was followed by that of the Oregon R. R. & Navigation Company property. In 1901, by purchase of a controlling interest, possession was gained of the Southern Pacific Railroad Company and, three months later, control of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company was acquired.

Recent Progress.- During 1905, the company advanced over $13,000,000 for new lines, steamship, and rolling stock. This included 341 miles of additional completed main track, 35 locomotives, and two steamships of 27,000 tons each. The increase in gross receipts, 1905, over 1904, was $835,000. The present plant consists of 835 locomotives, 556 passenger cars, 22,406 freight cars with a carrying capacity of 661,000

tons.

Union Springs, Ala., town, county-seat of Georgia; about 40 miles southeast of MontBullock County; on the Central railroad of gomery and 175 miles northeast of Mobile. It manufacturing establishments are cotton gins, is in an agricultural and fruit region. The chief cottonseed-oil mills, cotton mills, spoke and handle factories, grist mills, and a machine shop. The educational institutions are a high school, founded in 1899, public graded schools, and several private schools. The two banks posits, $310,000. Pop. 3,100. have a combined capital of $122,000, and de

Union Theological Seminary, located in New York. It was founded in 1836 under the auspices of the Presbyterian Church; the directors and professors of the seminary give their assent to the Westminster standards of this Church, but students of all denominations are freely admitted. The seminary offers the following courses: (1) A three-years' course leading to a diploma requiring the study of Greek and Hebrew; (2) a three years' course leading to the degree of B.D., requiring more hours' work and a higher standing than the diploma course, special work in some department chosen by the student and including a thesis; (3) a four years' course requiring one year's graduate work and a thesis; (4) special and partial courses. For admission to the degree courses college graduation is required; for the diploma course college graduation or examination in Latin, Greek, philosophy, English, and history. Part of the work in the regular courses is elective, and some electives are provided for at Columbia and New York universi

ties. The curriculum of the seminary includes courses in Old and New Testament philology and exegesis, biblical, systematic, and practical theology (including study of missions), apologetics, Christian ethics, church history and history of religion, voice culture and sacred music. Training in actual Christian work is provided in churches and chapels, public institutions, and settlement work; the Union Settlement is closely related, though not officially affiliated with the university. Seminary extension courses for lay workers were established in 1901. There are a number of undergraduate scholarships, four graduate scholarships, and two fellowships. The seminary buildings contain a chapel, lecturerooms, library, museum, reading room, gymnasium, social room, and dormitory rooms. The library in 1910 contained 100,000 volumes, including special collections in American and English history. The students in 1910 numbered 190, including the 2 fellows and the graduates.

Union University. Union College, unlike the other older colleges in America, çame into existence in response to a popular demand, which was essentially a citizens' movement, and expressed the growing national feeling. For this reason it did not take the name of any individual, and was from the beginning independent of denominational control. The first petition, signed by 850 citizens of Albany, Tryon, and Charlotte counties, was presented to the legislature of New York in 1779, or while the Revolutionary War was still in progress. It was not, however, until 1795, and after repeated appeals to the legislature, that a college charter was granted, although in 1785 an academy was organized which became the practical foundation of the college. The first president was the Rev. John Blair Smith, a graduate of Princeton. He was succeeded after four years by the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, the Younger, who died in 1801. The next president was the Rev. Jonathan Maxcy, a graduate of Brown and a Baptist, who resigned because of ill-health in 1804, when the Rev. Eliphalet Nott, also an alumnus of Brown, but a Presbyterian, was elected to the presidency. With his election the college began a new and aggressive life. Dr. Nott was a man of commanding presence and inspiring personality, fertile in ideas, and tireless in energy. Under his vigorous administration the college grew rapidly in numbers and in reputation, until it became one of the most prominent institutions in the country. Dr. Nott may be called the pioneer in modern educational progress. He was the first to break away from Old World traditions, and introduce new courses of study. As early as 1809 he instituted a course in modern languages, and in 1835 he established a scientific course running parallel for three years with the classical course. In 1845 he added a course in civil engineering, anticipating the demand for technical training which almost every other institution has since recognized. In still other ways Union College early gained distinction. It gave larger liberty to student life, and for necessary discipline depended more upon moral suasion than upon the enforcement of arbitrary penalties. It originated the college fraternity system, the oldest of these Greek letter societies, Kappa Alpha, Sigma Phi, and Delta Phi, having been founded at Union in 1825, 1827, and 1828, respectively. These were fol

lowed by Psi Upsilon in 1833, Chi Psi in 1841, and Theta Delta Chi in 1847. Dr. Nott's presidency covered a period of 62 years, from 1804 to 1866, when he died at the advanced age of 93 years. He was succeeded by the Rev. Laurens P. Hickok, who had served as vice-president during the latter part of Dr. Nott's life. In 1868 Dr. Hickok resigned, and in 1869 the Rev. Charles A. Aiken was elected to succeed him. Dr. Aiken held the office for two years, and was followed by the Rev. Eliphalet Nott Potter, a grandson of Dr. Nott. Under Dr. Potter the college was greatly strengthened, and regained much of its earlier prestige. He resigned in 1884, when for four years the college was without an official head, the Hon. Judson S. Landon acting as provisional president. In 1888 Harrison E. Webster became president, but because of ill-health resigned in 1894, and was succeeded by the present president, the Rev. Andrew V. V. Raymond.

Union College is noted for the large number of its graduates who have become prominent in political life and as men of affairs. Before 1860, it was the most distinctively national of all our educational institutions, drawing its students from every part of the country, especially from the South. Because of this it suffered more than did any other Northern college during the Civil War. It has always been thoroughly democratic in spirit, and has aimed to give its students a practical education. In recent years, while not abandoning its historic position as a classical and literary institution, it has taken advantage of the exceptional opportunities offered by its location in the city of Schenectady, the recognized centre of scientific interests, and has developed, with the co-operation of the General Electric Company, strong civil, sanitary and electrical engineering courses. With its inspiring traditions, its present sound financial condition, and its increasing patronage, this old college has much to expect of the future.

In 1873 Union University was organized by legislative act, and included the academic and engineering departments in Schenectady, and the law school, medical college, and Dudley Observatory in Albany. To these several departments was afterward added a school of pharmacy, founded in Albany in 1881. The academic department offers three courses, leading to the degrees of A.B., B.Ph., and B.S.; the work of the last two years is largely elective; in addition the work of the engineering department leads_to the degree of bachelor of engineering. The course at the medical school is four years, and the courses at the law school and school of pharmacy two years each. The observatory possesses a large equatorial telescope, a meridian circle, and full scientific equipment.

A. V. V. RAYMOND, D.D., Formerly President Union University. Union'idæ, a family of bivalved mollusks, the fresh-water mussels (q.v.).

Unionism, or LABOR UNION, a general term for organized labor. In the United States one person of every 40 of population is affiliated with labor organizations, of which there are 118 national and international unions including over 2,700 local unions. Associated labor is the natural result of the extension of the factory system and the outcome of modern industrialism.

In the United States.- While the unions of Great Britain increased from 1,500,000 to about 2,800,000, those of the United States grew from 548,300 in 1900, to over 2,000,000 in 1910. The causes for this growth were, in the main, the great prosperity of all workers, the trust or combination idea, the many strikes, and finally labor's natural growth. In 1895, the American Federation of Labor, the most powerful representative body in the United States-composing the great majority of organized workers, had perhaps 200,000 members. In 1910, President Gompers estimated that the organization had increased its membership for the 12 months ending with October, by 218,229, a figure almost as great as its total enrollment in 1899. In 1897, it was estimated that the total number of enrolled workmen in the United States, including the Knights of Labor and all other independent organizations, was about 1,500,000. In 1910, the American Federation of Labor had upwards of 1,800,000, and assuming that the other organizations have at least held their own, since 1899, we have a total of more than 2,000,000, as against 2,800,000 for Great Britain and Ireland.

As has been said, the growth of trade-unionism in America is due in large part to the trust and combination movements of capital, and the many strikes in every trade, many of which were so successful that the workingman got a revelation of the power of organization, and the membership of some of the trades - the building and mining in particular-increased with leaps and bounds.

The Necessity for Labor Unions, as Illustrated in the Building Trades.- Great construction companies, wholesale employers of labor in the building trade, have been at war since 1899 more or less incessantly with the trade-unions. Strikes, lockouts and boycotts have been common in all the larger cities. Since 1901 the building industry has involved in the United States an annual outlay of something like $400,000,000 and employs more than 1,000,000 men. The year 1904 promised, at the outset, to surpass all others in money and men employed, when building in every part of the country was interrupted by an epidemic of strikes. Chicago, San Francisco, and Saint Louis alone were excepted. Saint Louis was building its World's Fair and could not afford to risk delay. Chicago and San Francisco evolved organs of sufficient power to insure temporary peace in Chicago the Contractors' Council, in San Francisco the central body of the unions. All the other cities were more or less affected. At one time, when 150,000 men were calculated to be out in New York and Brooklyn, 50,000 were on strike in Philadelphia and 20,000 in Baltimore, while the Pittsburg district was on the verge of a complete lockout involving 40,000 more. The lesson of this epidemic of sympathetic strikes and lockouts is, that the building trades must be considered as a single industry, and that their labor problem must be treated as a single problem, not as a problem of 30 different trades.

The cost of the annual strikes in the building trades alone, both to the employers and to the men, is enormous, but in spite of all efforts to find a solution they still continue.

Demands of Labor.-The demands of the American Federation of Labor made in resolutions at its annual convention for 1903, will

show what is sought by the American tradeunionist. These demands were as follows:

1. Compulsory education.

2. The repeal of all conspiracy and penal laws affecting seamen and other workmen, incorporated in the Federal and State laws of the United States.

3. A legal work day of not more than eight hours. 4. Sanitary inspection of workshops, mines and homes.

5. Liability of employers for injury to health, body and life. 6. The abolition of the contract system in all public works.

water

7. The abolition of the sweating system. 8. The municipal ownership of street cars. works and gas and electric plants for the distribution of heat, light and power.

9. The nationalization of telegraphs, telephones, rail. ways and mines.

10. The abolition of the monopoly system of land holding and the substitution therefor of the title of Occupancy only.

11. Direct legislation and the principle of referendum in all legislation.

12. The abolition of the monopoly privilege of issuing money and substituting therefor a system of direct issuance to and by the people.

The trade-unions of the United States are usually willing to resort to conciliation in the adjustment of differences as they arise, such conciliation to consist of committees representing each side, and with equal power. They are usually in favor of arbitration when all means of conciliation have been exhausted, but they are opposed to compulsory arbitration, so called, and usually to compulsory investigation of the conditions attending a controversy. They do not object to, although they have little faith in, State boards of arbitration or other perfunctory legislative methods of adjusting difficulties. They are in favor of a strict legislation relative to blacklisting. They claim that the blacklist is a rank injustice, and that wherever practised there is a degradation of the man blacklisted, and an annoying and irritating influence upon those who are not; that it is a menace to the well-being of labor everywhere. On the other hand, they do not hesitate to use the boycott in enforcing their demands, on the ground that it is a legitimate war measure against men who are considered as strike-breakers, and thus traitors to the cause of labor. They insist that during periods of labor strikes or other controversies no man or body of men should be enjoined to prevent the doing of something which, if done, would be punishable under the criminal code; that they should not be debarred by injunction from picketing or patrolling, so-called, or from representing to non-union men that they had better not enter the service of the employer involved in a strike. They recognize their duty to avoid physical violence or intimidation, but claim that if they indulge in this, only those men engaged should be dealt with under the law. They insist that if they violate the law, and are thus amenable to punishment under it, they should not be subject to fines and imprisonment for contempt of court under an injunction; and they are now claiming that all petitions for injunction should first be heard, either by a jury or otherwise, before they are subject to the process of contempt. They are not in favor of socialistic revolution; but that under the present industrial system their affairs can be adjusted, their claims fairly adjusted and their condition made reasonably satisfactory. They are, as a rule, in favor of the extension of state control in certain directions, but they are not social demo