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Creator. For the real comforts and happiness of his life, he must be indebted to his fellowcreatures. All those who, in the crowded scene of civilization, are mainly employed in pursuing their own advantage, can only attain their end, by promoting collaterally the happiness of their neighbour. The confidence, the reciprocal kindness, the intercourse which arises from this connexion, is surely as amiable as that proud independence which has been recommended as the chief advantage resulting from an equality of ranks and possessions.

Let us examine the case before appealed to, and conceive a division of property like that in Peru. "The largest share of the lands was reserved for the maintenance of the people, among whom it was parcelled out. They possessed it, however, only for a year; at the expiration of which, a new division was made in proportion to the rank, the number, and exigencies of each family. All these lands were cultivated by the joint industry of the community. The people, summoned by proper

officers, repaired in a body to the fields, and performing their common task, while songs and musical instruments cheered them to their labour."*

There is something, it must be confessed, in this description, so unlike the unwilling toil and incessant drudgery we see around us, that a sanguine mind must imperceptibly be seduced by its fascination. That the concerns of an extensive community cannot be regulated in this manner, and were not even in Peru, has been already shown, by an examination of particulars; and the progress of population makes it evident, that the long duration of such a state of

* Robertson's America, iii. 339.

So, among the Negroes on the banks of the river Gambia, the seed-time is a period of much festivity. "Those who belong to the same village unite in cultivating the ground, and the chief appears at their head, armed as if he were going out to battle, and surrounded by a band of musicians, who, by singing and playing upon musical instruments, endeavour to encourage the labourers. The chief frequently joins in the music; and the workmen accompany their labour with a variety of ridiculous gestures and grimaces, according to the different tunes with which they are entertained." Millar, Orig. of Ranks, 159.

things is absolutely inconsistent with the economy on which the world is constituted, unless that obstacle is provided against by some artificial expedients. But laying aside for a moment these considerations: to a degree how inferior, when compared with his present dignity and station, would man be lowered, when reduced to a situation so regular and mechanical !

Virtue, as it has been truly and frequently remarked, is not more seen or tried in high and splendid situations, than in the every-day occurrences of quiet and tranquil life ;* since that obedience to given rules, on which virtue depends, is no less necessary in a humble, than in an exalted sphere. But this remark does not apply to the sameness of a life such as has been here described, where the faculties have no excitement, where half the passions would lie dormant, and that noblest virtue which consists

* Arist, Eth. x. 8. Οι ἰδιῶται τῶν δυναστῶν οὐχ ἧττον δοκοῦσι τὰ ἐπιεικῆ πράττειν, ἀλλὰ καὶ μᾶλλον. ἱκανὸν δὲ τοιαυθ ̓ ὑπάρχειν. ἔσται γὰρ ὁ βίος ευδαιμων, τοῦ κατὰ τὴν ἀρετὴν ἐνεργοῦντος. et seqq.

in the moderation and right direction of them, must want all opportunity of exercise. The real fact is, that such equality would sink the general standard of morality, first, by rendering stagnant the human faculties, and secondly, by cutting off the existence of exalted characters.

It is by observation of the actions of mankind in various situations, and of their effect upon the character of the actors and the happiness of others, that the leading rules of morality are discovered and laid down. Whether virtue be defined to consist in the suitableness of the affections to their objects, in the conformity of the actions to the truth or fitness of things, or in a benevolent regard to general utility and expediency,* questions which have

✦ I would not be understood to give any of these as definitions of Christian virtue. It is so evident, that the same definition of virtue will not be applicable to persons who have, and who have not, the advantage of Revelation, that it is surprising so much fruitless pains should have been taken to bring both situations under the same rule. If asked what has been my view of virtue in this chapter, I should say, that, considered as a settled principle of action,

afforded an advantageous employment to reason in various ages; it can certainly only be judged of in situations admitting the various relations of society, and displaying the effects of their various duties. This is the field where intellect should expatiate, and these are the situations where, in fact, the brightest ornaments of humanity have successively appeared and shone. If we trace the progress of morals from Confucius to Socrates, and from Cicero to the present day, all who have formed the truest judgment and delivered the justest rules of action have lived in a state where the distinction of ranks was most marked, and every variety of condition visible.*

it consisted in the being influenced by right motives to the attainment of a right end, according to the degree of light enjoyed by the agent. In proportion as the right end is perceived and the right motives are understood, human virtue becomes more or less perfect. Therefore intelligence is absolutely necessary to the higher degrees of virtue.

* This observation is confirmed by what has been before remarked of the ancient Greeks, that they were first natural, then moral, and last of all political philosophers.

Ferguson has observed, speaking of Rome, under the

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