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employment of a uniform terminology to avoid the confusion now arising from the use of different terms to express the same or corresponding facts in different languages.

Mr. Teubner announces in his Mitteilungen for 1887 (1) A Corpus glossariorum Latinorum, edited by G. Goetz who acknowledges his obligations to G. Lowe, Gundermann, and other scholars. The first volume will contain a history of Latin glossography; the second, which is already in type, contains Philo

xenus and the pseudo-Cyril. There will probably be nine volumes in all; (2) Pergamos by E. Thraemer, an inquiry into the early history and legends of the western side of Asia Minor; (3) an unpublished treatise of Plutarch on the Proverbs of Alexandria, edited by O. Crusius; (4) a new edition of K. F. Hermann's Plato, by Th. Wohlrab, with an accompanying volume on the 147 MSS. of Plato. As regards the mutual relations of the MSS., Wohlrab is in substantial agreement with Schanz.

UNIVERSITY INTELLIGENCE.

OXFORD.

Congregation has accepted the preambles of two statutes, the first affirming the principle that a School of Modern Language and Literature should be started; the second leading to some change in the practice of the Bodleian curators with regard to fending books. The Modern Language and Literature proposal gets into committee first, and there are two classes of amendments-one aiming at the insertion of various less known-especially Sclavonic-languages, the other attempting to secure the recognition of literature; as the present proposals throw the whole management of the School into the hands of the philologists. It is a tribute to the humanising influence of Latin and Greek studies, that the Professors of those languages are the champions whom the advocates of culture wish to place on the board. Meanwhile something better is to be done. The Merton Professorship is to be limited to language, as it practically was already; and the Chair of l'oetry is to be widened into a Chair of English Literature. But all these projects are only in their first stage, and the term will only just suffice to settle them. The only thing certain is that the philologists will have it all their own way, unless the less constant attendants come down and vote. The Bodleian

question is likely to be fiercely contested: but the preliminary discussion was calming. The borrowers' list was read, and the Librarian gave explanations which tended to prove that very little harm had as yet been done by the assailed oflicials. At the same time, it seems that readers do sometimes go away because the books they wanted are lent out. The general tendency of the discussion, as well as the obvious feeling of the audience, was in favour of very strict rules: but it was pointed out that some of the collections had been left under condition that they should be lent to certain classes of claimants.

Dr. Tylor continues his exposition of the PittRivers collection. He is dealing at present with the development of armour and pointed out, amongst other things, that the shield was originally an offensive weapon-a parrying-stick-used defensively, and was gradually modified so as to cover more and more of the person. One curiosity shown was a very good representative of a Greek helmet from the South Sea islands but it was not impossibly the result of early intercourse with Spaniards, and not a home-growth.

The Rev. W. W. Jackson has been elected Rector of Exeter College.

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-Lycian, Indian, Punic, Iberian, and others, the history of which is inseparable from those of more purely Greek fabric. In all this Mr. Head has shrunk from no obstacle of character or language, and the last results of exploration in these special fields will be found duly summarised in his work.

Mr. Head's work is not a series of essays like Lenormant's unfinished Histoire de la Monnaie dans l'Antiquité. It does not profess to be a complete and detailed description of every known type like that of Mionnet. Neither does it pretend to be a modern substitute for the Doctrina Numorum. The great work of Eckhel will still remain the starting-point of numismatic science. But, as Mr. Head very justly reminds us, that science has undergone an entirely new development since Eckhel's days. Fresh fields of study, of which the author of the Doctrina was ignorant, have been opened up. New alphabets and syllabaries have been discovered and deciphered. Hoard after hoard of ancient coins has been brought to light presenting endless new varieties. Wrong attributions, such as those that deprive Elis and Corinth of their coinages, have been set right. Whole classes previously unknown have been recognised and tabulated. Of the electrum staters of Cyzicus, the very existence of which had been doubted by Eckhel, no less than 150 varieties have now been described. More than this, new principles and methods have been introduced into the study of ancient coins by the advance of metrology, epigraphy, and the archaeology of art. The weight, the form of the letters, and the style of the design at present afford criteria as to the date of a coin, such as were almost wholly wanting at the beginning of this century.

With the difficult subject of metrology Mr. Head shows himself specially competent to deal. In his interesting and comprehensive introduction the vexed questions connected with the origin and transmission of weightstandards receive fresh and suggestive treatment based on the most recent discoveries and investigations. On the one side stands the Egyptian decimal system with its kats and utens, upon which Mr. Petrie's searches have shed so much new light. the other is the Babylonian and Assyrian sexagesimal system, derived apparently from time measures based on the astronomic science of old Chaldaea. Mr. Head, while acknowledging the possible influence of the Egyptian standard on some early coins of Lycia and Thrace for example, accepts the

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claims put forward on behalf of Babylonia and Assyria as the sources of all Greek metric systems. The ancient duck and lion weights of Assyria show us a heavy and light mina for the respective weight of which Brandis' estimate of 1010 and 505 grammes may still be regarded as approximately accurate. Of these the heavier seems to have been more generally in use in Syria, whence it passed to the Phoenicians, who, however, while adopting the heavy shekel, its sixtieth part, as their unit of weight, rejected the sexagesimal system in favour of a mina of fifty shekels, only retaining the old system in the talent of sixty minae. The lighter mina, on the other hand, with its lighter shekel seems to have found favour among the Hittites, the natural intermediaries between Assyria and the western parts of Asia Minor. Mr. Head, indeed, advances some good reasons for supposing that the mina of Carchemish,' as the light Babylonian standard is described in cuneiform inscriptions, had reached the shores of the Troad at a period long anterior to the first issue of coined money. In the Trojan treasure discovered by Dr. Schliemann were six silver wedges, each apparently representing one-third of the light mina, a fact which it is difficult not to connect with the Hittite association, in which the men of Ilion, the Dardanians and their kin, appear in Egyptian records of the fourteenth century before our era. The 'weight of Carchemish' was adopted by the Lydians, and the bullet-like electrum pieces ascribed to Gyges (circ. B.C. 700), the earliest known coins, were thus regulated by the light Assyrian mina. From Lydia this lighter standard passed to Milêtos and other Ionian cities, and so on to Euboea, giving rise in turn to the Euboic system, to which Solon's legislation gave still wider currency as the Attic. On the other hand the heavier Assyrian standard spreading over sea from Phoenicia took root in Aegina and the Peloponnese, where Pheidôn of Argos, though not the inventor of money,' may at least be regarded as the author of the earliest coinage of Greece Proper-the archaic 'tortoises' of Aegina.

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As a rule, in his geographical arrangement, Mr. Head follows the order generally adopted by numismatists, placing however Lydia and Phrygia immediately after Ionia and Caria. The vast preponderance of the coinage of Imperial date in the inland regions and a certain community of type, notably the frequent representations of the bust of the IEPA CYNKAHTOC personified,

afford good reasons for not breaking up the series pertaining to the senatorial province of Asia by the interpolation of coins from other Anatolian regions. It is a pity, however, that the author has not seen his way to throw over the preposterous and perverse arrangement by which Sybaris, for example, is included in 'Lucania,' or Caulonia in 'Bruttium.' Again, the separation of the coins of the two shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus is wholly arbitrary, nor can the general practice of numismatists be pleaded against a violation of historic unity. But the arrangement as a whole leaves little to be desired, and Mr. Head has shown himself laudably anxious in fixing the site of ancient mint-towns to incorporate the results of the latest archaeological exploration. In the case of Phrygia he has had the valuable assistance of Professor Ramsay.

Few indeed are the numismatic students who would consider themselves competent to follow Mr. Head over the whole of the vast field that is covered by the present work. Specialists in this or that branch will here and there complain that coins by which they themselves set store have been left out in the cold. But in condensing such a huge mass of facts some omissions were inevitable. The whole is in this case so much greater than the part that it is not without a certain sense of captiousness that I venture to note a few suggestions and rectifications that occur to me on a first perusal of Mr. Head's book. In the case of Italy, as the author himself informs us, he had not the advantage of consulting Garrucci's work, Le monete dell' Italia Antica, otherwise he would have found, for instance, a confirmation of his conjecture that the remarkable male figure on the coins of Caulonia supporting on his outstretched arm a running mannikin with winged feet represents not Apollo Katharsios but a local subject. The inscription KOKIN... read by Garrucci over the head of the principal figure now shows conclusively that it is in fact a personification of the Cocinthian promontory who with the aid of Zephyr purges from its malarious exhalations the narrow valley (avlov) in which the city lay. In his arduous endeavour to reduce to chronological order the complicated and very extensive series of Tarentine coins Mr. Head would have received no assistance from Garrucci's work, which in this respect is confusion worse confounded. The general result at which he arrives is corroborated by some large recent finds of Tarentine coins, but the complete the complete break in the didrachm series which he sup

poses to have occured on the Roman conquest of B.C. 272 seems very doubtful, and the interesting type reading TAPANTIΝΩΝΗΜΟ (Ταραντίνων εἰμὶ) must on grounds of style be taken from the fourth-century class with which Mr. Head groups it and referred to a date nearer the middle of the The silver type of preceding century B.C. Rubi, presenting on one side the full-faced head of Helios, is, as Avellino first pointed out in his essay De argenteo Rubastino, an alliance piece struck on the occasion of the Italian expedition of the Molossian Alexander, and is paralleled by types of that prince and the Tarentines. It thus belongs to a small class of coins which has a special chronological value and its date should have been approximately given as 332 B.C., a generation earlier than it appears in the Manual. At Heraclea the appearance of the name of the engraver, Aristoxenos, who also worked at Metapontion, should have been noted, and amongst the coins of the Bruttians the small bronze piece having as its obverse type the head of Athênê with a helmet in the shape of a crab-a type which Lenormant has with great probability brought into relation with the Pallas cult of Skyllêtion and its river Karkinês-should hardly have been omitted.

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To the few known coins of Hierôn's Aetna enumerated by Mr. Head may be added the type presenting the so-called 'crayfish' (better described as the Mediterranean prawn), on which Holm (Das Alte Catania, p. 7) lays stress as an additional link with the Catanese series. The enigmatic IIB on the coins of Segesta and Eryx has not yet received its solution. The suggestions that it is the equivalent of the Phoenician 'Tsits,' and that Tsits' in turn = opμos or Panor mos, seem equally inadmissible. Ugdulena has shown that 'Tsits,' for which he prefers to read Tsejets,' for ZéyeoT does not, as De Sauley supposed, occur on Panormitan coins. Nor can IIB be fairly regarded as a Greek transliteration of this Phoenician word, since it occurs on coins of Segesta and Eryx in the variant forms Il, Ill, IIA, and IIE. Eckhel's dictum still holds good hos numeros inter ignotos ablegandos censeo quos aliquando felicior quidam Laii filius evolvat.'

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To the Illyrian cities included in the Manual as having struck autonomous coins may be added Lissos-Alessio (Num. Chron. 1880, p. 271) and Scupi-Üsküp (Postolacca -Synopsis, &c.).

The early coins which Mr. Head in agreement with Imhoof-Blumer and Von Sallet attributes to Apollonia in Thrace must in all probability be referred to the Tauric Chersonese. The Russian numismatist Chr. Giel has proved almost to demonstration that in fact Pantikapaeon itself, like its fellow colony on the western shores of the Euxine, took its original Hellenic name from Apollo, the state patron of its Milesian mothercity. The small fifth-century silver pieces with the legend A or AOA in the incuse square and with the lion's scalp are themselves only distinguishable by their slightly earlier fabric from the pieces of similar design which bear the legend ПAN or PANTI, and are the undoubted product of the Pantikapaean mint. The connexion is however rendered still more intimate by the occurrence of another closely allied class of coin with the legends Arо, ПА or ПTANTI, having on the obverse in place of the lion's scalp an ant, púpunt, the type parlant of Myrmêkion, a small town which might almost be regarded as a quarter of Pantikapaeon. It is further to be remarked that these coins reading A and AПOA are, so far as is at present known, only found at Kertch or in its district. During a short stay in that town, I was indeed so fortunate as to obtain what I cannot but regard as an additional numismatic record of the Tauric Apollonia. Together with one or two of the small Apollonian silver pieces with the lion's scalp I secured, also from the Pantikapaean site, a unique and hitherto unpublished Cyzicene stater of the finest style, on which the Hyperborean Apollo, olive-branch in hand, is seen mounted on his griffin. Lenormant has rightly laid stress on the federal character assumed by so many Cyzicene types. When we find the Sphinx of Chios or the winged boar of Klazomenae, the lion of Milêtos, the half Pegasos of Lampsakos and other national types linked together on these staters with the Cyzicene tunny, we are justified in supposing that a number of towns of Asia Minor and the Euxine shores seeing the enormous profits that Cyzicus drew from its monetary operations allied themselves. with this town to exploit in common the Hyperborean gold and took shares, so to speak, in the great Cyzicene undertaking.' That Pantikapaeon the channel through which the gold-hoards of the Ural reached the Cyzicene speculators should have itself obtained this monetary recognition was only to be expected, and accordingly, though at a

somewhat later date, we find the Pan's head of its coinage represented on Cyzicene staters. In the present instance I venture to see an eloquent allusion to the earlier name of the same city which identified it in a special way with the cult of the Hyperborean Apollo. Amongst the coins of the neighbouring Sindi, Mr. Head has omitted the important type, first described by Oreschnikoff, the reverse of which displays the owl of the Athenian decadrachms, a coin of considerable interest as a landmark of Athenian enterprise in this direction, and as affording a close parallel to the coins of similar type struck by Amisos opposite under its new name of Peiraeus.

The language which Mr. Head habitually uses with regard to Greek autonomous coins construction. of the imperial period seems liable to misCertainly, in the case of Roman Colonies the right of coinage was due to special privilege on the part of the Emperor or the Governor of the Province. But unless we are to suppose that in every treaty of alliance between Rome and a Free City there was a special clause affecting the issue of coinage an entirely gratuitous assumption it must be admitted that in the case of these Free and Allied Cities the full right of coinage remained, though it was not always thought politic to make use of it. It was, as is well known, a maxim of Roman law, that such cities or peoples were outside the Roman jurisdiction. But this constitutional aspect has not been sufficiently regarded in the Manual. To take the extreme instance of Massalia, which does not seem to have struck coins after its capture by Caesar's legate, there can be little doubt that, had the city considered a resumption of its autonomous coinage compatible with its interests, it could have continued to strike coins. There was an excellent reason for the interruption of its coinage, for the treasury was cleared out by the invaders; but the independence of the Massaliote Commonwealth was touched. Strabo expressly tells us that in his day Massalia was not subject to the Governor of the Province. The cessation of the Massaliote currency should be rather taken in connexion with the very small denominations of its pre-existing autonomous coinage, and the large use already prevailing of foreign money. The general custom of the West also told against the exercise of its undoubted right of coinage; but had Massalia lain in Asia, we may be very sure that its mint would not have remained inactive. To take another and more con

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spicuous instance, that of Athens. 'It is probable,' Mr. Head tells us, 'that about the time of Hadrian the rare privilege of striking autonomous bronze money accorded to Athens.' It is possible that after Sulla's capture a break occurs in the autonomous currency. Political expediency may well have dictated such an omission, but the question of right was surely not touched. After Sulla's time, as before, Athens remained a Free City, and if while reviving its bronze coinage it still abstained from striking gold or silver, it never at least condescended, even in the sunniest hours of imperial favour, to place either Caesar's image or his circumscription on its xalkoî. The constitutional position of many Greek cities as regards the Empire was of such a kind that even when, as is generally the case, we find the effigy of the reigning Emperor on their autonomous coins, its appearance should be rather regarded as a voluntary tribute of respect or adulation than as due to any legal obligation. The general cessation of autonomous coinages, outside Egypt, towards the end of the third century, a cessation which connects itself with the administrative reforms of Aurelian, cannot itself be taken as a proof that the Free Cities abdicated their privilege. A Free City would by the very nature of things be more anxious to gratify the wishes of the Emperor than one of inferior title to bow to his will. Thus at Cherson, to take

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eminent example, although the usual break in the coinage seems to occur about the end of the fourth century of our era, the right of coinage was never relinquished. About Justinian's time we find the Tauric City, inspired perhaps by the Western examples of Ravenna and Ticinum, reissuing an autonomous coinage which with the complimentary adjuncts of imperial effigies and monograms continued to the eleventh century.

It is indeed in its treatment of the autonomous coinages belonging to the imperial period that Mr. Head's book leaves most to be desired. Yet from many points of view these coins have a greater value than those of a better artistic period. The aesthetic element which to many is the great attraction of Greek coins has, it is true, largely diminished. But the idealism of the great age brought with it a vagueness of type which in less skilled hands rapidly sank into vapidity. Types are etherealised till every characteristic feature has been improved away, and we know not who stands before us, a nymph or a goddess, a local hero or a panHellenic god, nay, at times, we are even left

in doubt whether the form be human or divine. It is still a moot point, for instance, whether the head on the beautiful drachms of Lamia represents Apollo, as Dr. Friedlaender supposes, or, as Professor Gardner holds, the celebrated courtezan! In contradistinction to this the antiquarian and realistic spirit of the Greco-Roman period is peculiarly valuable. Even regarding them from the point of view of art, it is to the coins of this period alone that we can turn for any accurate representation of many of the masterpieces of ancient sculpture. The Didymean Apollo of Milêtos and the Aphrodite of Knidos, the Leto of Euphranor and Tychê of Eutychides, the Parthenos and Olympic Zeus of Phidias himself are only a few among the great plastic works of antiquity commemorated for us on this later series of autonomous coins. The constitution of individual cities, their geography and commerce, the architecture of their buildings, and the statues in their public places, the portraits of their worthies, the festivals of the citizens, and their special religious cults are illustrated as they were never illustrated before. The necessarily restricted currency of these civic as opposed to imperial issues gave the freest scope to local colouring.

It is evident that Mr. Head does not underrate this important part of his subject In his comprehensive introduction he has given a useful list of the titles attached to the cities themselves, and to their varied magistracy and priesthood, as well as the names of their games and festivals. Nor has he omitted to give a fuller description of some at least of the more remarkable local types. But he seems to have been deterred by considerations of space from treating of this later period with a measure of fullness at all proportionate to the vast mass of material at his disposal. Thus, although he has evidently exercised great care in his selection of types for 'honourable mention,' the irresistible consequences of undue compression are none the less visible. Important types are omitted or referred to with a brevity incompatible with information. Inscriptions are given without the accompanying type, and types without the inscription. The illustrations of coins of this later period are reduced to a minimum. Yet there are many types of imperial times far more deserving of reproduction than not a few of the earlier coins of which illustrations are given in the book. What indeed could be of more graphic interest than such topographical designs as that for instance

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