ENGLISH HISTORY.

An outline of the History of England is contained in the Books for the Second and Third Years of the Pupil Teachers' Course. In this volume we give an account of the British Constitution, and some answers to Questions set at Examinations for Pupil Teachers.

THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION.

By the Constitution of a country is meant the system by which its government is carried on. Properly speaking, the term is only used in reference to a country which enjoys a certain amount of freedom, and has to some extent the right of self-government. A nation which is subject to the absolute control of a despotic monarch cannot be said to have a Constitution, since there are no fixed rules and methods by which the laws are made and administered.

The British Constitution is a Limited Monarchy. It is the most celebrated in the world. It has grown up naturally and gradually during many centuries, often amid fierce struggles between the champions of liberty and the supporters of arbitrary power. During these centuries the rights of the people were almost constantly gaining ground, till at length the English nation has become possessed of a system of government which secures to it freedom of person and property and a due share in making and administering the laws. Under the British Constitution we are enabled to live peacefully and contentedly, certain of enjoying the rights of free citizens, while exempt from the social and political disturbances which often shake other less favoured lands to their foundation.

The British Constitution is the admiration of the world, and has been the model on which nearly all the free constitutions which now exist have been formed. The United States, the British colonies, France, Germany, Spain, and many other states have systems of government framed after the pattern of the English system. England has not only gained freedom for herself, but for many other nations; perhaps ultimately for the whole world. It is her proud boast that she is the "mother of free nations," the "classic land of liberty."

One of the most remarkable features of the British Constitution is its stability. Many other nations have been free for a time, but after awhile liberty has degenerated into licence, and has given place to despotism. The solidity of the British system is due to two sentiments which exist in the minds of the people, and which have grown with the progress of the Constitution: their ardent love of liberty, and their equally intense love of order and respect for the laws.

As an example of the feelings with which the British Constitution is regarded abroad, we quote the following passage from the works of the celebrated French writer Montalembert, who died a few years ago :-"It has only been by force of courage, of patience, of an earnest faith in justice and good sense, that they (the English people) have entered into the enjoyment of that constitution which has cost them so dear, but which is worth all that it has cost, and which has gained the admiration of the most lofty and of the most varied minds."

I. THE RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE.

Every Englishman regards himself as a free citizen, subject only to the control of the laws and of the Constitution, which have been formed by the people themselves. His fundamental rights are :

(1) The right of Personal Security, comprising the "legal and uninterrupted enjoyment of his life, his limbs, his body, his health, and his reputation."

(2) The right of Personal Liberty, consisting in "the power of locomotion, of changing situation, or removing one's person to whatsoever place one's own inclination may direct, without imprisonment or restraint, uniess by due course of law."

(3) The right of Property, which consists in "the free use, enjoyment, and disposal of all his acquisitions, without any control or diminution, save only by the laws of the land.”

These rights are secured to him by the Constitution, and have been repeatedly affirmed in Magna Charta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus, the Bill of Rights, and the Act of Settlement. All these great charters of English liberty have been described in our sketch of English History, and it would be an instructive exercise for the pupil to examine them carefully with a view of observing the manner in which each of these fundamental rights has been asserted and secured.

II. THE LEGISLATIVE POWER.

The laws of England consist of two parts :

(a) The Common Law, called also the lex non scripta, or unwritten law, consisting of general customs which have obtained a legal force and are acted on in the courts of justice. This has long been established by use and precedent, and its validity in any particular case is determined by the judges in the courts of justice according to the records of the several courts, which are preserved and referred to for that purpose.

(b) The Statute Law, called also the lex scripta, or written law, made by "the king's majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the lords spiritual and temporal, and commons, in Parliament assembled." The statute law is superior to the common law, since the King and Parliament have power to abolish old laws and make new ones. The oldest of the statute laws now extant is Magna Charta, as confirmed in Parliament 9 Henry III., though no doubt many existed before that time whose records have been lost.

The statute law consists of Acts of Parliament made from time to time by the Legislative Power, called also simply the Legislature. Technically the term Parliament is held to include the three branches of the Legislature, consisting of the King, Lords, and Commons; but the term is usually employed to denote only the two houses of Lords and Commons.

THE SOVEREIGN. The Sovereign is the head of both the Legislative and the Executive Powers. The office is hereditary, and may be held by either a male or female descendant of previous sovereigns, according to fixed rules of primogeniture. In ordinary cases the eldest son of the preceding monarch succeeds to the throne; if male issue fail, then the eldest daughter becomes queen. If a monarch die leaving no direct heirs, the crown descends to his eldest surviving brother or his heirs, and so on.

The Sovereign has the sole right of assembling Parliament. It cannot meet without being summoned by him through his Ministers. Each session of Parliament is opened by the Sovereign in person or by deputy. No law can be passed without receiving his assent. The Parliament is prorogued and dissolved by the Sovereign, unless it has existed for a full period of seven years.

The legislative powers of the Sovereign are all exercised through the Ministers, who are responsible to Parliament.

It is now unusual for a Sovereign to refuse the royal consent to any bill passed by both houses.

THE HOUSE OF LORDS, also called the Upper House. This consists of

(a) Lords Spiritual, including the two English archbishops and twenty-four English bishops.

(6) Lords Temporal, including dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons. The number of English peers is variable, since the Sovereign has the power of creating them at pleasure. At present there are nearly 300. This house also contains 45 Scottish hereditary peers, 80 Irish hereditary peers, 16 Scottish

peers elected for each Parliament, and 28 Irish peers elected for life.

The Lord Chancellor sits on the woolsack, and acts as the president of the House of Lords.

The House of Lords is attended by the principal judges, and it is the highest court of appeal in civil cases.

A peer has the right of voting by proxy, that is, of appointing another peer to vote for him in his absence.

He has also the right of entering in the journal of the house his protest against any vote passed in the assembly.

Any bill, except a money-bill, may originate in the House of Lords.

THE HOUSE OF COMMONS, also called the Lower House. This consists of representatives chosen by counties, boroughs, and universities of England, Scotland, and Ireland. England is represented by 493, Scotland by 60, and Ireland by 105 members.

In boroughs members are elected by a majority of voters, who are householders paying poor-rates, or lodgers paying not less than £10 per annum for rooms; in counties owners of freehold property of an annual value of £2 or over and tenants paying a rent of not less than £12 per annum are entitled to vote.

The president of the House of Commons is called the Speaker. He is elected by the House at the commencement of each new Parliament.

The members of the House of Commons are chosen every seven years unless, as generally happens, the Parliament is dissolved before the expiration of that period, when a new election takes place.

The power of the House of Commons is very great. Any bill can originate in this house; money-bills must originate there. It has the command of the national purse, with the power of granting or refusing supplies, and therefore of controlling the action of the Executive. By constitutional usage the Prime Minister is obliged to command a majority in the House