animal in Imperial stones of 14 lb. A butcher's or Smithfield stone 8 lb.

If 30 is substituted for 21 then the weight will be in scores. If the beast is very fat one-fifteenth should be added to the weight so obtained: if not moderately fat one-fifteenth should be deducted.

Live and Dead Weight of Animals

Bullock. Dead weight of Lean Beast 50 per cent. of Live weight

To ascertain the contents of dung heaps.-Measure the length, width and depth in feet wherever the inequalities of the heap render it necessary and take the mean of each.

Rule:

(Length in feet x width in feet x depth in feet) 27 = number of cubic yards

It is required to manure a field with farm-yard dung at the rate of 15 tons per acre, each heap to contain 3 cwt.: at what distance apart should the heaps be placed?

There are therefore 100 heaps: 4840

100

=

48.4. Square root of 484 (say) 7. The heaps will be 7 yards apart.

=

To estimate the cost of draining agricultural land.-Reduce all items to lineal rods. The number of rods of minor drains required per acre may be found by dividing 2640 by the distance apart in feet at which it is intended to lay the drains. The number of pipes (12 inches long) required is obtained by multiplying the number of rods by 16.5.

The number of pipes for the mains must be arrived at by measurement on the ground or the map.

Example. It is required to drain a 5-acre field with 24-inch pipes 21 feet apart, 3 feet deep. The main is 660 feet long and 4-inch pipes are used.

Number of rods 5 (number of acres) X

2640

21

= (say) 629 rods.

£ s. d.

Labour of cutting, filling and pipe laying 629 rods at 6d. = 15 14 6 Number of pipes required

629 × 16.5

10378:

allowing for breakages (say) 10400 23-inch pipes at 30s. per 1000 .

Main 40 rods, labour at 8d. per rod

Number of pipes required for main 40 × 16.5 =

660, (say) 700 4-inch pipes at 45s. per 1000 Outlet (say)

This is equal to about £7 per acre, and depreciation may be taken

at 4 per cent. per annum.

To ascertain the contents of timber.-There are five systems of measurement, known as :

1. The die square which represents the cubic contents obtained by multiplying the length by the area of the inscribed square at the centre of the butt.

2. Calliper measure in which the area of the circumscribed square is the basis of calculation.

3. True contents, for which the sectional area at the centre and the length are the factors. (Used by Continental Foresters.)

4. Board measure by which the contents are reckoned according to the number of superficial feet of one-inch boards which can be cut out of a log-allowance for bark, &c., being made. (Used in America.)

5. Quarter-girth in which the contents are taken as the product of the length and the square of one-quarter of the circumference at the centre. (Used in Great Britain.)

In England we adopt the last-mentioned system of measurement. It is a compromise between the vendor who would naturally favour the true contents method and the purchaser who would prefer die square measurement, maintaining that he can only cut square timber out of the latter measurement. The quarter-girth system, then, distributes the waste, so to speak, between vendor and purchaser, which is a fair and equitable arrangement.

Rule:

(girth in inches) x length in feet

144

= the cubic contents in feet.

For die square substitute 181 for 144 as a divisor in the above formula, and for true contents 113. For calliper measure substitute (mean diameter in inches) for ( girth in inches). For board measure the following rule may be used when the log does not exceed 40 feet in length :-Take the mean diameter in inches at the small end of the log, and deduct 1 inches from it: the result squared × 0.785 · the sectional area at small end. Then(Sectional area

=

Å

sectional area) × length of log in feet

12

the number of feet super., board measure.

It should be borne in mind that if we wish to compare Continental prices with British we must raise the former by about one-third in consequence of the different system of measurement, because quarter-girth is about 25 per cent. less than true contents.

Method of Measuring Standing Timber.-To obtain the height.The usual way is to have a pole marked off in feet held against the trunk. This pole may be of ash, cut from the wood, say 15 feet long. Held at arm's length it will give a height of about 22 feet. The remainder must be estimated by the eye. Bamboo rods which fit in lengths like a fishing-rod are sold for the purpose. These are about 25 feet in length and if held at arm's length will reach a height of about 32 feet.

If the height is required to be known accurately, a very useful instrument for the purpose is the Apomecometer which is explained in a later chapter.

To estimate the girth.-This is usually taken at about 4 to 5 feet from the ground with a strap made for the purpose and called a timber measuring strap. This strap gives at once the quartergirth in inches, whereas if an ordinary tape is used the girth in inches must be divided by 4. A good strap for the purpose is an old and well-worn driving rein about 12 feet long with a hook at one end. In using, it should be stretched as tight as possible, and therefore in marking the sizes it should also be stretched tight.

But in measuring the girth there are two things of great importance to be considered. Firstly, the thickness of the bark must be estimated; it is usual to allow one inch in every twelve inches of quarter-girth for rough-barked trees, and half-inch in every twelve inches of quarter-girth for smooth-barked trees. In the case of beech trees no allowance is made as a rule for bark.

Secondly, a further allowance must be made for 'taper' or 'fall off' (i.e. the tree getting thinner at the top of the stem). Anything under 6 inches quarter-girth is not considered, so that the height is calculated up to where this quarter-girth is estimated to be. It is obvious that when measuring at 5 feet from the ground the average quarter-girth is not obtained, and the allowance for this discrepancy is generally, in normally shaped trees, one inch in quarter-girth for every 10 feet in height for Conifers and about 1 inches in 10 feet for broad-leaved trees. Such an allowance is admittedly somewhat arbitrary and only experience can give correct results. These three methods may be given for getting at the average girth of standing timber :

1. Measure at 5 feet from the ground, then estimate the measurement 5 feet from the top, and average.

2. Estimate the girth at the centre of the tree.

3. Measure at 5 feet and deduct one inch for every 10 feet of height.

Many practical men prefer method No. 1. It has the advantage over No. 2 in that the error in the estimated measurement is corrected to the extent of one-half by averaging with the actual measurement. No. 3, in the case of trees such as larch and spruce which may be nearly cylindrical and of great length, favours the buyer too much.

There are various customs as to what is to be measured for timber and the Kentish practice is to measure only the spire and give the branches against the labour: but it is a bad custom. It is far better to measure everything that is timber and then allow 68. to 78. per 100 cubic feet for the labour of cutting.

Method of Measuring Felled Timber.-It is obviously easier to arrive at correct measurements when the timber is on the ground, and it is consequently better, when selling, to agree at a price per foot and then measure the number of feet when felled.

Take the length with a three-foot rule and mark half the length on the tree. At this spot take the girth with a piece of whipcord attached to a piece of bent wire which will enable it to be pushed under the trunk easily.

Having measured with the whipcord withdraw it and fold it twice; this gives the quarter girth. Now measure the folded whipcord with the foot rule to the nearest quarter of an inch. Deduct

the bark allowance. If the tree is irregular in shape, measure each part separately (dividing it into several logs) and add them together. Care should be taken to put the cord straight round the tree and not obliquely.

In working out the formula given the cubic content should be given in feet and inches, and in arriving at the number of inches it should be borne in mind that an inch in this case is the twelfth part of a cubic foot and NOT a cubic inch, which is th part of a cubic

foot.

Example.-A tree has a girth of 40 inches under bark and a length of 30 feet.

Therefore the cubic content of the tree is 20 feet 10 inches.

Timber measurer's tables may be obtained from the Estates Gazette, price 3d., which will obviate the necessity of working out the contents.

34 cubic feet of English oak timber (green)

= 1 ton.

On a rough average pieces of timber vary within the following limits per cubic foot according to the quality and size of the timber :

Oak, 18. to 2s. 6d. ; ash, 18. to 28.; elm, beech, sycamore, sweet chestnut, 9d. to ls. 6d. ; lime, poplar, 9d. to 18. 3d.; larch, 8d. to 18. 2d.; Scots pine, 5d. to 8d.; silver fir, 4d. to 6d.

Cordwood.-Cordwood consists of those parts of a tree which cannot be called timber and are too big to be classed as faggots. It is made up into stacks of varying sizes according to the custom of the locality. The most usual size is 128 cubic feet of firewood cut into lengths of 2 feet 2 inches. Such a stack would measure 2 feet 2 inches wide, 2 feet 2 inches high, and 27 feet 4 inches long, or 8 feet x 4 feet × 4 feet, and generally sells for about 10s. A standard is a measure for converted timber.

To find the number of trees required to plant an acre of land. Rule:-Divide 43,560 by the square of the distance in feet apart that it is intended to plant the trees, for square planting.

To ascertain the contents of Hay Stacks.-Oblong Stacks.Measure the height in feet from the bottom of the stack to the eaves and add to it, if the stack is barge-shaped one-third, if 'hipped' one-quarter of the perpendicular height from the eaves to the ridge for the total height; making an allowance where necessary for bottom or standing of stack.

Measure the length in feet halfway between the eaves and bottom, so as to get the average length; making an allowance for loose outsides-say, 3 or 4 inches in the case of a well-trimmed stack and 6 to 9 in a not well-trimmed stack.

Measure the breadth in feet in the same way as the length. These three measurements multiplied together will give the cubic contents in feet. Divide by 27 to obtain the contents in cubic yards.

The weight of hay per cubic yard in the stack varies considerably, depending on the nature of the hay, its age, the size of the stack, and the part of the stack taken.

The weight may, of course, be accurately ascertained by actual measurement of the cubic contents of a truss, and from this calculating the weight of a cubic foot.

Large ricks are always heavier per cubic yard than small ones; and the round rick is lighter than the oblong one.

The divisors which may be used to obtain the number of tons, when the number of cubic yards has been found, are :—

Example. A stack of hay measures 40 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 12 feet high. Find the tonnage. 40 × 20 × 12 = 9600 cubic feet. Divided by 27 = 355 cubic yards approximately. Putting it at 10 cubic yards to the ton we get 35 tons of hay in the stack.

Second cut clover hay will require 13 or 14 cubic yards to the ton. Old hay, when over two years old, deteriorates in value about 20 per cent.; and the difference in price between first, second and third quality may be taken as 20s. Thus first (say), 80s.; second, 608.; third, 408. per ton.

Consuming price two-thirds of the market price.

=

The density of a stack may be arrived at by thrusting in the hand and arm or forcing in a stick. If the stick has a hook on the end