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I. The power to read easily and intelligently enough to make reading a pleasure,
The power to write easily and legibly; and,

II.

III. The power to perform, and to apply to every-day matters, the common operations of arithmetic, at least as far as practice and the rule of three inclusive, rapidly, accurately,

and with as much comprehension of the principles as is practically necessary for this

purpose.

As to other subjects, the walls of a school carry maps and diagrams; every reading lesson, every dictation lesson, must be about something or other; the trained and certificated teachers have been highly educated themselves, in order to be able to connect and to explain as much of history, geography, grammar, and the rudiments of natural science, as occur in all the reading books commonly used. While, however, the teacher's general knowledge is thus employed in giving life and interest to the entire course of instruction, and rescuing it from that character of mere mechanical drudgery in which it was formerly too apt to fall, the main stress, nevertheless, of the instruction should turn rather upon what the children are to be enabled to do, than upon what they are only to answer about.

In the Reports of the Inspectors may be found, as usual, many important facts as to the excellences and defects of the various methods which they have observed, besides practical suggestions for their improvement. We regret that we have room for very few extracts, which must be of a somewhat miscellaneous character.

Very satis factory testimony is borne by the Inspectors generally as to the working of the pupil-teacher system, and as to the steady improvement which is being effected by it in the elementary schools throughout the country. Nevertheless, it is suggested by several of the Inspectors, and especially by Mr. Fussell and Mr. Cook, that these young people are, in too many cases, looked upon as instruments of present usefulness, and not sufficiently as apprentices learning a profession. The latter gentleman thus urges the special need of a more direct training in the art of teaching.

First, with regard to the professional training of pupil-teachers:-(1.) I hold it to be self-evident that in the course of five years all apprentices should see the working of every part of a school. They ought to have followed and practised every step in every elementary subject of instruction. This cannot be done unless they have charge of different classes in different years, or unless they are released at intervals from the care of their own class, and allowed to watch the work of one of their more experienced colleagues, or of the master. Most good teachers are careful in this matter. It is not, however, always attended to. It sometimes happens that a pupil-teacher has been confined to one or two divisions of a school, and is either practically ignorant of the best system of teaching each elementary subject in alỵ its stages, or imperfectly conversant with its principles and details. (2.) There is a great variety of opinion as to the length of time during which pupil-teachers should be in charge of a class. Some limits to the admissible variations may be fixed by general consent. It is clear that a teacher ought to remain with one class long enough to know each child thoroughly, and to be responsible to the head teacher for the general progress. One month appears to be the minimum for these objects. On the other hand, I should think a year is about the maximum, and I should prefer six months. With the latter arrangement, every part even of the largest schools may be brought successively under the observation of the apprentice.

The proportion of certificated teachers is steadily on the increase, and a corresponding improvement is remarked in the general character and standing of the masters and mistresses throughout the country. Mr. Brookfield pays a high tribute to the teachers of his district, and the testimony of his colleagues is generally in accordance with his own.

I feel justified, by deliberate observation and belief, in saying, that no class of persons in the community, numerically equal to the existing elementary schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, excels them as a body in the amount of knowledge necessary for their employment, in a humble and conscientious sense of duty, in professional devotedness, or in predilection for their calling.

Mr. Morell makes some observations on the necessity of a more accurate classification of the schools, and of a better graduation of subjects throughout the lower classes, which well deserve the serious attention of teachers.

I might almost say, that the prime difference between a good and a bad school lies in the gradations of progress, visible throughout the whole, as you ascend from one section to another. It is a grand weakness, which I have often to experience in the course of my inspection, that the children forming the first class can make a very decent appearance; while, the moment you go one step below them, you seem to be stepping at once into mental darkness and confusion. The aggregate excellence of a school consists in the combined excellence of every part, and it is only when each class is in its proportion equally well taught, and equally well advanced, that real efficiency is, or can be, secured. Eminently

is this the case in the school to which I am now referring; so much so, that if a child passes only through two or three of the lower sections, and then leaves, still it must have experienced a mental training, and acquired a facility in elementary subjects, which may always prove the starting-point of self-improvement in the future.

An investigation of the advantages and disadvantages of collective or simultaneous methods of teaching occupies nearly the whole of Mr. Laurie's Report. He urges very strongly the need of supplementing all gallery lessons by rigorous individual examination. We give the following passage from his remarks on this important subject:

The machinery of the simultaneous method being set in operation, the paramount difficulty of the schoolmaster seems conveniently overcome, universal activity appears to prevail. The most serulinizing teachers, however, both in my previous and in my present district, have found that, when they supposed this activity to be genuine, they were labouring under self-deception. It is true that, in the perfected form of the method, mechanical activity may be secured, i. e., words may be enunciated with satisfactory accuracy; but close observation will determine that it is only a very small proportion of the class who are in any way conscious of a connexion between the sound and the sense of the words they utter. And this is a perfectly natural consequence, seeing that in simultaneous reading, for ex ample, every individual effort is concentrated on the anxiety to keep the measured time. While, there. fore, the bare art of collective utterance may be conveniently cultivated under this system, the entire aim of learning to read, to wit,-the habit of accompanying comprehension,-is, on the whole, foiled. It would, nevertheless, be some recommendation of the system, were even technical accuracy attained as a general rule. But, from its certain liability to abuse, this is far from being the average result; for in ordinary cases, the apparent activity of the majority of a class amounts, in point of fact, merely to an external lip movement, which has little connexion with articulate utterance; and there are always some who make no semblance of an effort at all.

As a proof of the excessive blindness to genuine practically available results, which the exclusive, or nearly exclusive, use of the simultaneous system is apt to engender, I may here mention that frequently, on pointing out the faulty character of the reading of individual pupils, I have been triumphantly referred to the simultaneous performances. But in what state, as regards reading, is a pupil who canno acquit himself even in a tolerable manner without the aid of that "sympathy of numbers" so much vaunted by some advocates of the simultaneous system? I have heard a class read simultaneously with striking effect, producing at first a most favourable impression; which impression, however, was completely and very unpleasantly dispelled in the course of the next ten minutes, when the pupils were tested singly. About one-fifth of the whole may have read as well as the class collectively appeared to do, while the rest fell various degrees short of the proficiency which they ought to have attained, and which an unwary observer would have imagined they had attained. The class, on the whole, when tested individually was found to read badly, though, when tested simultaneously, it seemed to read well. In fact it is difficult, not only for the mere spectator to escape deception under this system, but even for monitor, apprentice, and the average teacher. If it is argued that all this is true of the system when abused, not used, I can only reply that unfortunately such abuses constitute the general result of its application in the schools I have inspected. My position with regard to the system is precisely that of drawing attention to its actual abuse, and its inherent liability to abuse.

Mr. Mitchell, whose long experience enables him to estimate the progress of edu cation during the last few years, and to compare our present with our former condition in this respect, thus sums up the result of recent educational movements:— Eleven years have elapsed since the Minutes of 1846 were brought into operation. That period is not so long ago but that most persons can remember what was then the state of schools for the working classes. The buildings since erected prove by contrast how deficient the school accommodation then was, and yet we were told, twenty years ago, that there was no need for interference,-that the country was as well educated as it could be, or as it ought to be. But not only was the accommodation insufficient in how few schools were there any but the hardest and most unintelligible reading books, and those chiefly confined to religious subjects, treated in a manner which, if it enjoyed the advantage of being deep, possessed also the misfortune of being dry. No geography, no maps, no grammar, no history (except in comparatively few cases); while the apparatus, the fittings, and in many cases the general squalor, excited disgust, rather than inclination to enter them. I shall say nothing of the teachers. Of all the schools in England, notwithstanding all the advantages offered by the Government, comparatively few teachers attended the examinations in 1847, 1848, and 1849. Their assistants in the schools were then only boys and girls of ten to twelve years of age; and with this help a teacher was considered, incompetent if he did not manage to educate from 150 to 250 children; and persons even were foural to assert, that the teacher did educate them.

Thank God, such delusions are now dispelled; that state of things has passed away, let us hope, for ever. At present the schools under inspection are mostly well-built, well-found, well-managed, and cared for; able teachers, ably assisted by competent pupil-teachers, every year increase in number. Better books have been written, more subjects introduced, and we are working, wherever inspection goes, in most places, fairly, in some, excellently. But, we are now only in our commencement. We have to wait for the harvest. In the mean time there is quite sufficient result to prove that what has been done is a blessing; and to excite a hope that, when what remains to be done is completed, that blessing will be yet further extended.

LESSON ON THE USE OF LAWS.

THE following illustration of a conversational lesson, which was given by the teacher to the elder boys of an elementary school, has been forwarded to us by a correspondent :

Each time I come to school I pass a watchmaker's shop; inside the window are several gold watches, while outside there are many people passing, all of whom, no doubt, would like to have some of these watches; the only thing that separates them from the people is a thin piece of glass, yet no one attempts to break through this to get at the watches; can you tell me why? Because they know it is wrong. Is it the fear of doing wrong that keeps all from trying to steal them ?--No, Sir. Then what does keep those from doing wrong who do not mind doing what they know to be wrong?--They are afraid of being caught and put into prison. What do you call such a fear?—Fear of punishment. Right; but who have the power of punishing thieves?—The magistrates and judges. And what gives that power?-The law. If there were no law for punishing theft, could there be any fear of punishment?--No, Sir. And we have seen that it is this fear only which keeps some from stealing. Now, if that fear were removed, could the watchmaker's property be as safe as it is now ?—No, Sir. And what makes it safe now?The law. What word may we substitute for makes safe?-Protects. And what is anything called that protects?—A protection.

By means of several inductive questions, the boys were then led to see that the law is as effectually a protection to property as if it were a material barrier; that it thus protects the shopkeeper's goods, the farmer's crops, the trees, shrubs, and flowers of public parks, and property of all kinds. From these illustrations they were able to answer the following questions :-

Now tell me, as clearly as you can, what is the principal use of law?—The chief use of law is to protect property, both private and public. We have spoken of material property only; are there any other kinds of property that need protection? -Yes, Sir; our lives, and our characters, and our peace. And it does this, as you all know, by punishing those who commit murder; and those who maliciously speak evil of us; and those who make rows. A better word than " rows?"-Disturbances. Now use the word "wealth" instead of "material property," and tell me more fully what are the uses of law?--The uses of law are to protect persons' wealth, lives, and character; and to keep order. And how does it do this?—By punishing those whỏ break the laws, and so making others afraid to do so. What people are those who require to be restrained from doing wrong by fear of punishment ?--The bad people. We have been speaking of law only as a means of protection; is there no other way of protecting our rights?--Every man could protect his own.--What! even if a man were attacked by one stronger than himself?--Men could join together to protect each other's rights. That is sometimes done, when there is no constitutional law, and I will tell you how the plan succeeds.

I then gave a short account of the state of things as they existed at the diggings of California and Australia, showing how insecure life and property are in the absence of law. From a few illustrations, gathered chiefly from the newspapers, I

showed how frequently offenders escape punishment, and how often, too, when caught, the punishment is disproportionate to the offence. From such illustrations my class deduced the truth, that constitutional law is better than individual or mutual protection, because with it (when properly executed) there is a far greater probability that the offender will receive just punishment.

You all know that men labour to obtain wealth, what do some hope to do with it when obtained?—To enjoy it. And others?-To increase it. In which cases they convert part of their wealth into capital. Name some kinds of capital.-Houses, land, ships, railways, canals, factories, machinery, raw materials. Would men change their money into these things if they had no security for keeping and using them?--No, Sir. And what gives them this security?—The law. If in England there were no such security, what would the industrious, skilful, and economical men do, to whom the capital of the country belongs?--They would not work so hard, or But there are some men who must from their very nature be industrious and saving, and who could not live in such a state of things, what would they do?—Go to other countries where property is safe. And what would prosperous, happy England then become?-Very poor and miserable.

save.

In this way the children were thus led to see that national prosperity is as dependent on the goodness of the laws, as on any of the sources of wealth.

We have now seen that property of all kinds is secured by the laws; tell me what benefits arise out of this security?—We are prosperous and happy. Do you think you derive any benefit from the goodness of the laws?--(No answer.) Think a little; how do your fathers get money to buy food and clothing, and to pay rent for you? --By working. Out of what part of their wealth do masters pay their men?--Out of their capital. And we have seen the capital cannot exist, unless protected by law; therefore, without this protection there would be no factories to work in, no machinery to work with, no raw materials to work upon, and no money to pay for labour. Now tell me whether you derive any benefit from the laws?—Yes, Sir.How?--We get food, clothes, and shelter, that we could not get without. And therefore we say you have an interest in the existence of the laws; so have I; so has every one.

This being the case, what is it every one's duty to do, when the laws are in danger of being broken? To do all they can to prevent their being broken. Why?— Because law is for the good of all.

STYLE AND LANGUAGE IN TEACHING.

A COMPLAINT not unfrequently made against teachers is, that they lack variety and flexibility in their language. It is said that even when the subject of the instruction is understood, the phraseology in which it is conveyed is too often bookish and technical, and that in this way the teaching of elementary schools is not only less interesting, but far less effective than it should be. There is too much truth in these accusations. The most pains-taking and conscientious teachers of course get up the knowledge of their subjects from books; but they often aim only at conveying that knowledge in the language of those books. The best lessons are marred by the too frequent use of technical terms. The master learns teaching as a profession, and therefore throws much of his instruction into a professional form. Hence there is a want of life, of vividness, of force, of adaptation to the real needs and comprehension of children, and therefore a want of interest and practical value in a large majority of school lessons.

It is not difficult to assign, at least in part, the causes for this state of things. One may be found in the character of the ordinary school-books; which are for the most part, as indeed they ought to be, filled with information put in a concise and condensed form. The language employed in them may possibly be the best lan

guage; but it is necessarily technical, often abstruse and unfamiliar. Such phraseology should undoubtedly be learnt by children, but they are too often confined to it. Teachers suppose that if the facts are learnt in book language, their work is done, and nothing more is necessary; forgetting that the facts require to be set before a young mind in a great variety of forms, and that it is especially, necessary to translate the language of a school-book into that of ordinary life, in order to make it interesting or even completely intelligible. Moreover, the desire› for exactness and precision in statement, which is in itself a commendable thing, often makes teachers afraid to deviate from the phraseology which is used in books, or which they themselves have been accustomed to use when they studied the subject. The private reading, also, especially of the best and most faithful teachers, is apt to be confined almost exclusively to professional books, or to books whose main purpose is to furnish facts. Thus they are apt to acquire a hard, professional, and unattractive style of expression, which they habitually use, without being conscious that there is anything remarkable or pedantic about it.

The great cause, however, of the prevalence of this evil, is the tendency which: exists, in all but persons of the highest cultivation, to do their work mechanically, and to be content with only one way of doing it. Routine is, after all, much easier. than an independent or original method. Mechanical teaching, in the words pre-> scribed for us by others, is not absolutely impossible, even when but half our minds are occupied; but the teaching which invests the subject with a new dress, and which presents knowledge in exactly the form best suited to the learners, requires the whole mind. The true reason for the dulness, for the meagreness of language, and for the coldness of style so often complained of in schools, is that teachers do not always give their whole minds to the subject. They do not sufficiently identify themselves with it, nor make it thoroughly their own before they teach; above all, they are content to be the channels by which the words of others are to be conveyed to a learner's memory, instead of living fountains of instruction, imparting to others what springs naturally and spontaneously from their own minds.

The consequences of the deficiency to which we refer are often shown in many ways. Children feel an interest in their lessons in exactly the same proportion in which those lessons appeal to their own sympathies and to their own consciousness of need; but their attention is languid and their progress slow, when no such appeal is made. Unless the subjects talked about in school connect themselves with the duties of ordinary life; unless the mode of treating them in school bears some relation to the mode in which they are to be treated elsewhere; the learner begins to feel that he lives in two worlds-one in the school-room and one outside it and that the language, the pursuits, and the modes of thinking of these two regions are wholly unlike. The one is a world of duty and restraint, the other of pleasure and freedom. In the one he speaks in a sort of falsetto, and uses words which are not natural to him; in the other, he speaks his own language, and feels at ease. Some of this is perhaps necessary and proper; but the worst is, that he too often feels that there is no intimate relation between the two; that the duties of the one have nothing to do with the requirements of the other; and that it is possible to fail in one and succeed in the other. It is not only by the substance but by the style of school lessons that this impression is often unconsciously conveyed, and when once gained, it doubles the work of teaching, and goes far to destroy a learner's interest in his school-work.

If any teachers are conscious that these remarks apply even partially to themselves and their own experience, we may remind them that one or two simple correctives for the evil are in their own hands. We will speak of these in order, and will not apologise to teachers for using in this case the briefest form of expression, the imperative mood.

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