merit, had more influence on the popular mind than any similar work that had ever appeared. As may be expected from the title, the book is grossly sensational, and in speaking of water, the author says "The filthy and unwholesome water supplied from the Thames, of which the delicate citizens of Westminster fill their tanks and stomachs at the very spot where one hundred thousand cloacinae, containing every species of filth and all unutterable things, and strongly impregnated with gas, the refuse and drainage of hospitals, slaughter-houses, colour, lead, and soap works, drug mills, manufactories, and dunghills, daily discharge their abominable contents, is so fearful that we see there is no wisdom in the well, and if we then fly to wine we find no truth in that liquid. Bread turns out to be a crutch to help us onward to the grave, instead of being the staff of life. In porter there is no support, in cordials no consolation, in almost everything poison, and in scarcely any medicine cure." In another place he ascribes the sudden deaths of people in the streets, &c., to the adulteration of their food. Among the sophistications of beer he enumerates, following Accum, cocculus indicus, St. Ignatius bean, nux vomica, tobacco, and extract of poppies.

§ 33. About nine years after Accum's book had been published in England, A. Bussy and A. F. Boutron-Charlard published in France a work of considerable merit on the adulteration of drugs,* the arrangement of which is strictly alphabetical. In the preface, the authors assert that the great development in the art of adulteration had taken place particularly since the wars of the Republic and the establishment of the Continental system, and that it was due more especially to the action of the government, who encouraged the use of products of home growth; in consequence of which, roots grown in France were being substituted for those of foreign origin. Chestnut bark, French rhubarb, and poppy were proposed to replace the quinine of Peru, the rhubarb of China, and the opium of the Levant.

Garnier and Harel, in 1844, published their treatise; † a wellwritten work, moderate in tone, and without exaggeration. A great number of the chemical reactions and tests mentioned by them are in actual use at the present time. Two years later, J. B Friedrich, in Germany, published his observations on the same subject. The arrangement of Friedrich's work is alpha* Traité des moyens de reconnaître les falsifications des drogues simples et composées. Par A. Bussy et A. F. Boutron-Charlard. Paris, 1829.

+Des falsifications des substances alimentaires et des moyens chimiques de les reconnaître. Par Jules Garnier et Ch. Harel. Paris, 1844. Small 8vc. Handbuch der Gesundheitspolizei, der Speisen, Getränke, und der zu ihrer Bereitung gebräuchlichen Ingredienten. Herausgegeben von J. B. Friedrich. Ansbach, 1846. 8vo.

betical. He paid much attention to the composition of diseased milk; and although he made little, if any, use of the microscope, the chemical details of the work are superior to any that had hitherto appeared (see article on "Milk").

§ 34. About the same time, after more than twenty years had elapsed since the publication of any English work-Accum's being the last-the subject of adulteration was revived here by John Mitchell, who published what must be considered a very useful volume, although many of the tests he gives would scarcely stand the ordeal of a court of justice at the present day. He states, e.g., that if an infusion of tea, treated with sulphate of copper, and heated, throws down a copious chocolate precipitate, "hawthorn" is present; if the infusion becomes of a bright green colour on adding caustic soda, sloe leaft is probable; but if, on the addition of acetic acid, the solution possesses a very bright colour," its presence is certain." Mr Mitchell's confidence in these reactions is amusing; but on the other hand, the greater number of his observations are still valid.

§ 35. In 1850 Chevallier issued his dictionary of adulteration,‡ which, through successive editions, has from the time of its appearance been, par excellence, the standard French work on the subject. Many years before the publication of his great work, however, M. Chevallier had practically studied the question, as is proved by documentary evidence, and by his numerous representations to the government on the necessity of amending the law. In a petition presented to the National Assembly in 1848, he says "Since 1833 I have constantly addressed to the Chambers of Deputies petitions on the same subject, but these petitions have ever been abortive, and fraud has progressively augmented." The first edition of his dictionary written in a clear style, contained an excellent résumé of what was already known with regard to falsifications, and besides, was enriched with many new facts-the result of a long experience.

In the same year, 1850, Alphonse Normandy, who published the results of thirteen years' labour in a "Handbook of Commercial

"Treatise on the Falsifications of Food, with the Chemical means employed to detect them." By John Mitchell, F.C.S. London, 1848.

+ The belief in the adulteration of tea by the leaves of the sloe is almost contemporaneous with the introduction of tea itself into England, and there are numerous allusions to the practice scattered throughout the various fugitive contributions to literature. However, that tea has been actually adulterated with sloe leaves rests on no direct evidence worthy of consideration.

Dictionnaire des altérations et des falsifications des substances alimentaires. Par M. A. Chevallier. Paris, 1st ed., 1850.

§ Petition sur les falsifications, adressée a l'assemblée nationale. Par A. Chevallier. 1848.

Analysis," was one of the first who recommended the use of the microscope for the detection and discrimination of starches: "The admixture of potato flour or fecula with wheat flour may be very well detected by the microscope," p. 210. The scope of his work embraced not only the analysis of food, but also the examination of a variety of commercial substances, such as ores, agricultural manures, soaps, &c. The arrangement is alphabetical; successive editions have brought the work to the present time.

§ 36. A year after the appearance of Normandy's English and Chevallier's French works, appeared the papers of Dr. Hassall, in the pages of the Lancet, as already mentioned. The publication of these papers marked a new era in legal medicine and the investigation of foods, and the technical application of the microscope was fully developed in the English use. It was not so, however, among Continental chemists, for Hureaux, in his "Histoire des Falsifications," published in 1855, scarcely mentions the microscope, although, so far as chemical tests go, his work leaves nothing to be desired. This is the more curious, since the author was aware of the evidence given before the select committee, as is obvious from more than one reference.

§ 37. In 1874 a movement took place in England, the effect of which has been to give an extraordinary stimulus to analytical chemistry-viz., the establishment of the Society of Public Analysts. The movement originated with a few of the leading analysts, who, after one or two private meetings, called a general gathering, which all those engaged in actual practice were invited to attend. This meeting took place at the Cannon Street Hotel in August, 1874; and in a few months the society was fully organised, and a definition of adulteration within certain "limits" had been laid down as follows for the guidance of members:

DEFINITION OF AN ADULTERATED ARTICLE.

An article shall be deemed to be adulterated

A. In the case of food or drink :

1. If it contain any ingredient which may render such article injurious to the health of a consumer.

2. If it contain any substance that sensibly increases its weight, bulk, or strength, or gives it a fictitious value, unless the amount of such substance present be due to circumstances necessarily appertaining to its collection or manufacture, or be necessary for its preservation, or unless the presence thereof be acknowledged at the time of sale.

3. If any important constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted or omitted, unless acknowledgment of such abstraction or omission be made at the time of sale.

"A Handbook of Commercial Analysis." By A. Normandy. London,

4. If it be an imitation of, or be sold under the name of, another article. B. In the case of drugs:

1. If when retailed for medicinal purposes under a name recognised in the British Pharmacopoeia, it be not equal in strength and purity to the standard laid down in that work.

2. If when sold under a name not recognised in the British Pharmacopoeia, it differ materially from the standard laid down in approved works on Materia Medica, or the professed standard under which it is sold.

LIMITS.

The following shall be deemed limits for the respective articles referred to:

Milk shall contain not less than 90 per cent., by weight, of milk solids not fat, and not less than 2.5 per cent. of butter fat.

Skim Milk shall contain not less than 90 per cent., by weight, of milk solids not fat.

Butter shall contain not less than SO 0 per cent. of butter fat.

Tea shall not contain more than 80 per cent. of mineral matter, calculated on the tea dried at 100° C., of which at least 30 per cent. shall be soluble in water, and the tea as sold shall yield at least 300 per cent. of extract.

Cocoa shall contain at least 20 per cent. of cocoa-fat.

Vinegar shall contain not less than 30 per cent. of acetic acid.

The Proceedings," which appeared first in the Chemical News, were afterwards published in the special organ of the Societythe Analyst-throughout the pages of which will be found details of numerous processes, discoveries, and improvements in practical chemistry, which it is certain would, for the most part, not have been invented or known, had there been no such encouraging organisation. With this brief account of the establishment among us of the Society of Public Analysts, we may bring our sketch to a close.

The following is a fairly complete list of works discussing the adulteration of food as a whole. A list of treatises on single articles will be given in the bibliographies at the end of each chapter.

§ 38.-A LIST OF GENERAL TREATISES ON ADULTERATION CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED.

BOYLE, ROBERT.-"Medicina Hydrostatica; or Hydrostatics applied to
Materia Medica." London, 8vo, 1690.

SANDE, J. VANDEN.-"Les falsifications des médicaments dévoilées.'
Haye, 1784.

La

FAVRE, A. P.-"De la sophistication des substances médicamenteuses et des moyens de la reconnaître." Paris, 1812, in 8vo.

ACCUM, FRED." A Treatise on Adulteration of Foods and Culinary Poisons." London, 1820.

EBERMAYER, CH.-"Manuel des pharmaciens et des droguistes, ou traité des caractères distinctifs des altérations et sophistications des médi

caments." Traduction par J. B. Kapeler et J. B. Caventou, Paris, 1821, 2 Vols., in 8vo.

BRANCHI, GIUSEPPE.-"Sulla falsificazione delle sostanze specialmente medicinali e sui mezzi atti ad scoprirli.' Piza, 1823. DESMAREST.-"Traité des falsifications, ou exposé des diverses manières de constater la pureté des substances employées en médecine, dans les arts, et dans l'économie domestique." Paris, 1827, in 12mo. BUSSY ET BOUTRON-CHARLARD.-"Traité des moyens de reconnaitre les falsifications des drogues, simples et composées, et d'en constater le dégré de pureté." Paris, 1829, 8vo.

WALCHNER, F. H.-" Darstellung der wichtigsten im bürgerlichen Leben vorkommenden Verfälschungen der Nahrungsmittel und Getränke, nebst den Angaben, wie dieselben schnell und sicher entdeckt werden können." Karlsruhe, 1840, in 12mo, 120 pp.

-"Darstellung der wichtigsten, bis jetzt erkannten Verfälschungen der Arzneimittel und Droguen." Karlsruhe, 1841, 8vo. BRUM, FRANZ.-"Hilfsbuch bei Untersuchungen der Nahrungsmittel und Getränke, wie deren Echtheit erkannt und ihre Verfälschungen entdeckt werden können." Wien, 1842.

RICHTER." Die Verfälschungen der Nahrungsmittel und anderer Lebensbedürfnisse, nebst einer deutlichen Anweisung die Echtheit derselben erkennen und ihre Verfälschung entdecken zu können.” Gotha, 1843.

GARNIER, J., ET HAREL, CH.-"Des falsifications des substances alimentaires, et des moyens chimiques de les reconnaître." Paris, 1844. BERTIN, G.-" Sophistication des substances alimentaires, et moyens de les reconnaître." Nantes, 1846, 8vo.

FRIEDRICH, J. B.-"Handbuch der Gesundheitspolizei, der Speisen, der Getränke, und der zu ihrer Bereitung gebräuchlichsten Ingredienten." Ansbach, 1846, 8vo.

BECK, LEWIS C.-" Adulterations of Various Substances used in Medicine, and the Means of Detecting them: intended as a Manual for the Physician, the Apothecary, and the Artisan." New York, 1847, Svo. ACAM, F. L.-"Traité des falsifications des substances médicamenteuses et alimentaires, et les moyens de les reconnaître." Anvers, 1848, in Svo.

MITCHELL, J.-"Treatise on the Adulteration of Food." London, 1848, in 12mo.

PEDRONI, P. M.-" Manuel complet des falsifications des drogues, simples et composées." Paris, 1848, in 18mo.

NORMANDY, ALPHONSE.- "Commercial Handbook of Chemical Analysis." London, 1850 (there are later editions).

CHEVALLIER, A.-" Dictionnaire des altérations et falsifications des substances alimentaires, médicamenteuses et commerciales, avec l'indication des moyens pour les reconnaître." Paris, 1850-52, 2 Vols. (There are later editions.)

DUNGERVILLE, EMILE.-"Traité des falsifications des substances alimentaires, et des moyens de les reconnaître." Paris, 1850.

TAUBER, ISIDORE.—“ Verfälschungen der Nahrungstoffe und Arzneimittel." Wien, 1851, 8vo.

PIERCE. —“ Examination of Drugs, Medicines, Chemicals, &c., as to their Purity and Adulterations." Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S., 1852,

in 12mo.

GILLE, N." Falsifications des substances alimentaires." Paris, 1853. FOP." Adulteration of Food." London, 1858.